Heteronormativity and the Exclusion of Bisexuality - Essay Example

? A Critical Review Human sexuality is a topic that has been of controversy given that there are diverse opinions on the issue. The authors define human sexuality as “the ways in which we experience and express ourselves as sexual beings” (Rathus et al p. 23). It is evident that the authors of the book do not attempt to give an opinionated definition of the term thus allowing for various interpretations of human sexuality. It is notable that (Barker 2007) agrees on the individual natre of the description of sexuality. Human beings are singular and unique hence their choices also boil down to personal preferences. Essentially, the authors make an assumption that every person is a sexual being and it forms an integral part of every person either consciously or unconsciously. According to (Myerson 2007), the basis of human sexuality is the gender of person. The way a person chooses to experience and express their sexuality is also dependent on social factors on top of their biological nature. Thus, the authors agree that sexuality is an individual decision and it can not be forced on a person. It is also evident that human sexuality is self discovery process which and people define their sexuality at different times in their lives. (Rathus et al 2005) note that gender roles in some cultures dictate the ways in which males and females are expected to behave. However, the authors agree that these roles are not necessary right and individuals have the freedom to decide their sexuality even if it may conflict with the expectations of the society. Rathus et al (2005) stated that the society prescribes gender roles and gender identities based purely on the sex of the person. This implies that one is assigned social roles and stereotypes based purely on their biological sex. In this regard boys and girls are treated in a different ways. For instance, the authors point out that gender typing begins from the naming of children. Girls are inclined to engage in motherhood roles only while boys play masculine roles. The effect of this is a person grows in a predefined gender identity based on their biological make up. However, it should be noted that gender identity and roles transcend the confines of biological make up in terms of X and Y chromosomes. (McDonald p.45) argues that although sex is predefined by the biological composition of chromosomes in a person, gender is not necessarily imposed on a person. Gender typing can be biased if it is only based on the biological aspects of a person. Gender identity can either be due to a person’s perceived or actual sex. Therefore, it is possible for sexism to arise if the issue of gender is imposed on people based only on their sex disregarding other factors that can shape the sexuality of a person. In fact, the authors point out that the traditional gender stereotyping based only on the sex of an individual may leave out the transsexualism, intersexualism, and hermophroditism. This implies that gender typing leaves out the people who transgress from the traditional gender brackets that are narrowly defined by the biologically. Rathus et al point that there is cross-cultural evidence on gender typing based on long held gender stereotypes. Children are socialized to behave in gender defined roles and they differentially prepared for adulthood. As noted by (Simoni 2000), some parents impose gender roles by rewarding gender –typical roles in children and punishing behavior that is inconsistent with the predefined gender roles. Further examination of Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity indicates that the authors are inclined towards a liberal position in relation to gender identity and gender roles. This calls into question the traditional views of masculinity and femininity which need to be reconstructed in order to be reflective of individual perspectives (Phillips 457). According to the book, sexual orientation is the direction of one’s sexual interests. This can be towards members of the same sex, members of the other sex or both. Fundamentally, gender identity bundles a person into a given gender based on stereotypes and it does not necessarily determine the sexual orientation of a person. The authors of the book Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity argue that sexual orientation has been controversial due to traditional beliefs based on gender identity (Ch 2). Heterosexuals are recognized by most societies as the most natural form of sexual orientation. Thus, the society advocates for heteronormativity whereby individuals of different sexes can copulate. This orientation is basically shaped from gender roles and gender identities that are often assigned at early stages of life (King 1988). It is traditionally believed that sexual orientation is fundamentally meant to facilitate the creation of children and hence new generations. This is a flawed belief that cannot be substantiated. It is acceptable that heterosexuals are capable of producing children but it is not every person who needs kids anyway. The authors delve deep into the issue of sexual orientation by analyzing the non heterosexual orientations. First, Rathus et al note that the society has a generally negative impression towards non heterosexual orientations. One of the traditionally sidelined sexual orientation is homosexual orientation. Basically, homosexual orientation is the sexual attraction to members of the same sex. It should be noted that homosexuality has been present in humankind since ancient times but the society has never fully accepted this form of sexual orientation. In some communities, homosexuality is deemed to be evil and completely unethical. Therefore, it is common for homosexuals to hide the sexual orientation and fulfill their sexual desires secretly due to fear of being castigated by the society (Simoni 78). One of the forms of homosexual orientation is gay males. These are males who are attracted to other males for romantic relationship. In some cultures, gay people are considered to be misnomers and their sexual orientation is often kept under wraps. In as much as the society is opening up to gay people, it is still considered to be undesirable and something that most people abhor. In fact, most religions expressly condemn gay couples and it is considered as a very inappropriate practice to say the least. The book Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity does not delve further into the social issues that gay people are subjected to. According to (Kings 1988), gay couples are stigmatized by the society either directly or indirectly. It is only recently that some states officially recognized gay marriages. Even in the states that gay marriages are recognized, gay couples are not appreciated by the general population. In institutions such as schools and colleges, gay couples are often discriminated against by their colleagues in class. Due to these challenges posed by the society, gay people often keep their sexual orientation secret even from their close family members. Rathus et al in Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity also discuss the issue of lesbianism. The authors note that although girls are generally allowed to be close to each, the notion of lesbianism is also subject to social stigmatization. Unlike gay couples, lesbians can kiss and be romantic in public and pass off as just ordinary affection for each other. However, lesbians are also often forced to keep their sexual orientation private. Lesbians are sometimes forced to pretend that like males in order to meet the expectations of the society. (Peel 2001) notes that the traditional views of sexual orientation do not accept homosexuality; both gay and lesbian. Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity indicates that bisexuals also present in the society. Bisexuals are males and females who are sexually attracted to both sexes. This is a form of a cross breed sexual orientation given that the attraction is to members of the same sex as well as members of the opposite sex. Bisexuals are often able to camouflage in the society given that they can sometimes pass off as heterosexuals. The authors do not give the precise reasons that can lead to bisexual orientation. For instance, (Myerson 97) postulated that bisexuals do have a dominant sexual orientation that leans towards one sex. For instance, a male bisexual may be mostly sexually attracted to other males and occasionally sexually attracted to females. Therefore, it can be argued that bisexuals are essentially oriented towards one sex and they willingly experiment with the other sex. The book also discusses sexual orientation that can be variations in the lifestyles of gay people and lesbians. Due to the stigma in the society, the gay and lesbians are often forced to lead double lifestyles. Gays and lesbians may have otherwise normal heterosexual relationships which help them to blend into the society. On the other hand, they also keep secret gay or lesbian relationships. For instance, you may find a gay person who a senior church official. In many cases, if the person reveals his gay orientation he is likely to lose respect of the church members and the church position. Therefore, this person may publicize a heterosexual relationship and even get married to the lady in order to meet the expectations of the society (Brown et al 30). However, it is not always possible to change the orientation of homosexuals by exerting pressure from the community. It is notable that sexual orientation comes from within and it cannot be imposed on an individual. If a homosexual person feels that there is pressure to conform from the society, the usual course of action is to feign change but the original orientation remains. According to (Barker 2007), it is within the rights of every individual to make a decision on their sexual orientation. Self determination should always be upheld as long as it does not interfere with the inalienable rights of other people. The authors suggest that the law protects the rights of homosexuals to follow their preferred sexual orientation without any fear. In fact, there are various legislative and homosexual activist initiatives that are geared towards combating the discrimination of gays and lesbians. The society is slowly learning to accommodate homosexuals and bisexuals as they are part of the community. It is imperative that despite the legal framework and the efforts of the civil society to protect the homosexuals from discrimination, there is still significant resistance to accept them by the society in general The authors of Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity give prominence to the issue of sexuality by highlighting in childhood and in adulthood. Rathus et al contend that sexuality during adulthood is more of experimentation and exploration as one seeks to identify their orientations and preferences (Ch 13). At about two years of age, children begin to be curious and recognize their sex organs. The authors point out that during stage, the children are just curious and they are often confined to the gender typed sexuality. Later on children begin to masturbate as they experiment further with their bodies. Girls may begin masturbating as early as four to five years of age and boys start masturbating a bit later. Children masturbate because they are exploring their bodies and it may feel good for them to touch their genitals. Hence, parents should not be alarmed when children play with their genitals as this is part of their journey to define their sexuality. Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity does not explore fully the issue of teenage sex and the reasons for its prevalence in the United States. Phillips (1991) points out that teenagers are tempted to engage in sex due to peer pressure as well as the surplus of sex media that is easily available. According to the authors of Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity, adolescents already know their sexual orientation but may still feel inclined to follow the expectations of the society (Ch 13). In adulthood, sexuality as taken various forms as a person gains more independence and freedom. It is during adulthood that a person realizes that they have the freedom to make their own decisions concerning their sex orientation and break away from the expectations of the society if need be. (Barker 2007) notes that most people realize the other sex orientations other that heterosexual are normal they may not be alone in their sex orientation. This process of self discovery is critical in confirming one’s preferred sexual orientation since there is more information and freedom. The book Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity attempts to give a full spectrum of the issues that relate to human sexuality in a comprehensive manner. Notably, the book covers the main topics of Lesbians, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual and Queer in a straight forward manner (Rathus et al 2005). The authors clearly indicate that sexual orientation is purely a matter of personal choice as long as it does not harm other people. Gender identity and gender roles are discussed in a comprehensive manner that reflects the liberal thinking of the modern society. One’s gender is not explicitly defined by the person’s actual sex but also the individual’s perceived sex. The book also gives some information on the contemporary issues such as sexual coercion and commercial sex. However, the authors seem to indirectly advocate that heterosexual orientation is the norm in the society. This is evident due to the fact most sections of the book base their discussions and conclusions on the assumption that the audience is heterosexual. For instance, the sections on pregnancy, contraception and childbirth are based on heterosexual relationships. The book does not give a fully neutral discussion of issues related to human sexuality so as to allow the reader to decide his or her own sexual orientation. Bibliography Barker, N. (2007) Heteronormativity and the exclusion of bisexuality in psychology. In V. Clarke and E. Peel (Eds), Out in Psychology: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and queer perspectives. Chichester: Wiley. Brown et al. (1985) A review of psychology of women textbooks: Focus on the Afro-American woman. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9: 29-38. Gray, V. (1977) The image of women in psychology textbooks. Canadian Psychological Review, 18: 46-55. King, N. (1988) Teaching about lesbians and gays in the psychology curriculum. In Bronstein, P. and Quina, K. (eds), Teaching a psychology of people: Resources for gender and sociocultural awareness. APA Books. (available in library) McDonald, G. (1981) Misrepresentation, liberalism, and heterosexual bias in introductory psychology textbooks.Journal of Homosexuality, 6: 45-59. Myerson, M., Crawley, S. L., Anstey, E. H., Kessler, J. and Okopny, C. (2007) Who’s zoomin’ who? A feminist, queer content analysis of ‘interdisciplinary’ human sexuality textbooks.Hypatia, 22(1), 92-113. Phillips, Sarah Rengel (1991) The hegemony of heterosexuality: A study of introductory texts. Teaching Sociology, 19: 454-63. Rathus, Spencer A., Nevid, Jeffrey S., and Fichner-Rathus, Lois (2005) Human sexuality in a world of diversity, 6th ed. Boston: Pearson Allyn and Bacon. Simoni, Jane M. (2000) Confrontingheterosexism in the teaching of psychology. In Beverly Greene and Gladys Croom (eds), Education, research, and practice in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered psychology: A resource manual (pp. 74-90). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. . Read More