Erikson and Each Stage of Psychological Development: the Effect of Social Experience - Research Paper Example

Personalities are made up of a comparatively enduring set of characteristics that define one’s individuality and affect one’s interactions with other individuals and the environment according to Bjorklund and Bee (2008). Several scholars have come up with different theories of human development among them being Erik Erikson and Sigmund Freud. This paper is dedicated to the analysis of Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development. Erik’s Theory of Psychological Development Erikson’s epigenetic theory of psychological development describes the effect of social experience throughout the whole lifespan. Erikson much like Sigmund Freud had a conviction that personality grows in a series of stages. He, in fact, agreed with most of Freud’s development theories including his theory of infantile sexuality, superego, ego and id. Erikson, however, differed with Fraud’s attempt to base personality solely on sexuality and Freud’s assertion that personality did not develop beyond the fifth year of life. Erik’s is a well known theory of personality in psychology and is made up of eight stages each characterized by different conflicts that must be solved in stages by a developing individual. Whenever the environment changes its demands on individuals, according to the renowned developmental psychologist, conflicts come up. These conflicts leave individuals faced by choices on which between the maladaptive and adaptive ways would be effective in coping with each crisis (Schultz and Schultz, 1987). The conflicts act as turning points in development and are centered on the development of failed qualities and bringing the high potential of either growth or failure. All the stages in Erikson’s theory are, at least in a latent form, present at birth and are composed of a contest between two opposing tendencies, both experienced by the same individual at the same time. The choice an individual makes determines which tendency will be more eminent in his or her life. The following sections of this paper examine the eight stages of Erikson’s theory and explain the behavior of individuals passing through the particular stages. First Stage: Mistrust versus Trust (Birth to One Year of Age) Erikson argues that the foundation of human development lies with the sense of trust in both oneself and in others (Cavanaugh & Fields, 2006). The first task of an individual’s ego is the development of love and trust. This stage conforms to the oral stage of Freud’s theory. In this fundamental stage of life, the child relies on parents, particularly the mother for sustenance, food and comfort. Also, at this stage, it is mandatory for the infant to form a trusting and loving relationship with its parents or guardian since failure to do so leads the child to develop a sense of mistrust (Bjorklund & Bee, 2008). Children who get constant attention from their parents tend to develop a sense of trust and security in the world. On the other hand, parents who are emotionally unstable, unavailable, inconsistent, rejecting or abusive contribute to the development of mistrust in their children which in turn lead a child to believe that the world is unpredictable and inconsistent. The balance between trust and mistrust largely depends on the maternal relationship quality (Davis & Clifton, 1995), and facilitates the acquisition of hope. The child therefore tends to believe that a good experience will always follow a dangerous or discomforting experience (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2007). Second Stage: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (One to Three Years of Age) As children gain mobility and increased muscular coordination, they become capable of taking care of some of their own needs. Children in this stage begin to feel like they are responsible for their own actions and are eager for responsibility and seek to gain more control over toy choices, food preferences and clothing selection. Erikson believed that children of this age face social challenges concerning their autonomy. Training on toilet use is an important part of this stage and learning to manage one’s body functions results in a sense of independence and a feeling of control. It is important for parents to encourage behaviors towards self-sufficiency and to confirm to the children that their initiatives are accepted however small they may be as this encourages the child to develop a sense of autonomy and the confidence to tackle most challenges on their own. However, if parents make too many demands, some of which the children may not be able to meet, the children may grow to be riddled with self doubt and shameful feelings. Patience and encouragement from the parents or caretakers provides a strong base from which the toddlers can venture out to affirm their will. A proper balance of autonomy, doubt and shame leads to the development of will, which is knowledge that when controlled, enables the children to act intentionally (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2007). Third stage: Guilt versus Initiative (Four to Six Years of Age) This stage is frequently characterized by pretence and imagination with children becoming quite curious and inquisitive (Locke & Ciechalski, 1995). Hero worshiping and playing are important initiatives for children at these stage. Their independence levels are extended towards a new level of exploration. They begin exploring the environment on their own and question issues about the world and themselves (Cavanaugh & Fields, 2006). Young people in this stage begin to identify with their parents and other adults and their games begin to develop a purpose. Children in this stage explore roles of adults such as parents, teachers, athletes or writers. The children increasingly have the ability to carry out tasks on their own and with the increasing independence come many more choices on activities to be pursued. Most times they take on tasks that are very easily achievable but at times they choose challenges that are beyond their scope or those that may cause interference with other people’s activities and plans. Parents and guardians are therefore supposed to help them in making appropriate and realistic choices if the children are to develop independent initiatives in undertaking and planning activities. Children who emerge triumphant at this stage consider themselves capable of assuming leadership over the others. Those who are not successful in acquiring these skills however, remain with a sense of self doubt, guilt and lack of initiative (Carver, 2000). Guilt may arise from the feeling that their initiatives may not have achieved the desired results or place them in apposition of conflict with the others (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2007). Harsh criticism of the children for missteps may also lead to the feeling of powerlessness and guilt about their desires and needs. The castration complex that takes place during this stage can be traced to the child’s erotic fantasies (Davis & Clifton, 1995). If children in this stage are denied the chance to do things on their own, they may start believing that whatever they want to do may always be wrong. A resulting conflict over initiative comes out in the child as a hysterical denial, which can cause a regression in wishing or an abrogation of the ego. A positive outcome can be achieved in this stage if the children are taught that some things are not acceptable without them having to develop feelings of guilt. The children must be assured that it is acceptable to play certain grown up roles and be guilt free whenever they are exploiting their imagination. A balance between willingness to cooperate and individual initiative achieves enables the child gain purpose which is a potential strength. Fourth Stage: Industry versus Inferiority (Seven to 12 years of Age) This stage is marked by an increase of peer interaction, the children’s need for acceptance and the need to develop competencies. Children, through social interactions, begin to develop pride in their abilities and accomplishments. Erikson notes that this stage is manifested in children by their desire to work hard in order to accomplish certain tasks (Cavanaugh & Fields, 2006). The main challenge in this stage is the development of self-confidence and industriousness. The basics of technology are developed in this stage and the urge to complete productive situations gradually supersedes the wishes and whims of play. They learn to become aware of the relationship between the pleasure of a well done job and perseverance (Woolfork, 1987). The industry at this development state is acquiring knowledge on how things are made and work. The loss of hope in their industrious actions may result to a child being more isolated and less conscious with the rivalry associated with this oedipal period. The children find it important to attend school and are increasingly more conscious of themselves as individuals. They put more effort at doing things right, being good and responsible, are more reasonable to cooperate and share with others. These children are also more eager to learn and master complex skills needed for survival like problem solving, telling time, reading and writing (Locke & Ciechalski, 1995). They get to have opinions on moral values, recognize individual and cultural differences and are able to handle their grooming and other personal needs with minimal assistance. Children who receive acclaims and encouragement from their parents or guardians develop a sense of belief and competence in their skills while those who get little or no encouragements develop doubt in their ability to succeed in life. This is also the stage where interaction with peers plays an important role in the child’s development. Academics, friends and group activities are some of the variety of activities and tasks the child gets exposed to at this stage. Failure in any of the tasks leads to feelings of inferiority followed by withdrawnness and lack of motivation. Children who find it difficult to make a move to between the world of peers and the world at home are also likely to develop the feeling of inferiority. Fifth Stage: Role Confusion versus Identity (13 to 19 Years of Age) The fifth stage which coincides with adolescence is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood; the children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. This period sees the individual undergo major developments that are a necessity for the successful transition to adulthood. Adolescents are always concerned with how others see them and find it necessary to develop an identity that is unique to the individual. The identity would be an integration of all the adolescent’s self images and roles into an exceptional person who is emotionally and socially capable of taking on the responsibilities of an adult. The adolescents are faced with questions about what roles they would like to assume in the adult world. At first, they are prone to experience some mixed feelings and ideas on how to fit into the society leading to some sort of confusion in trying to balance their need to chose a possible self and their need experiment with many possible selves (Cavanaugh & Fields, 2006). They may experiment with an assortment of activities and behaviors like assuming some political and religious affiliations, tinkering with cars or babysitting for neighbors. Erikson noted that the successful resolution of conflicts in the earlier development stages can now serve as a basis for an identity search. He proposed that eventually most adolescents get to achieve a sense of identity upon who they are and the direction their lives are headed to. The inability of an individual to develop a unique identity leads to role confusion whereby one remains uncertain and confused about who she/he is. The confusion frequently manifests itself in the adolescent’s inability to continue with higher education after high school, or the inability to decide on what career to pursue (Locke & Ciechalski, 1995). Adolescents who receive reinforcements and proper encouragement through personal exploration eventually emerge from this stage having a feeling of control and independence and a sturdy sense of self. The ones who remain uncertain about themselves, their desires and beliefs will still be faced with feelings of confusion and insecurity in the future. Sixth Stage: Intimacy versus Isolation (20 to 34 years of age) This is the stage of early adulthood when individuals explore personal relationships and careers. Traditionally, individuals in this stage settle down on a career of their choice and develop sexual intimacy with other people. This is the stage where they are able to merge their individual identities with the identities of other people as intimacy extends to marriage, family, friends and other persons around them (Locke & Ciechalski, 1995). Erikson (1968) defines intimacy as the sharing of a lot of aspects of oneself without fearing a loss in identity. At the beginning of this stage, the confusion on identity versus role starts diminishing though it still lingers at the foundation of the Intimacy versus Isolation stage (Erikson, 1950). Erikson further argues that young adults still experience the urge to fit in and blend their identities with those of their friends and still experience the fear of rejection in this stage. Erikson states that the counterpart of intimacy is isolation. The isolation is mostly towards those who seem dangerous to oneself and those whose territories give the impression of encroachment into one’s intimate relationships. The inability to get into a rewarding interpersonal relationship results in self absorption and isolation which could further lead to character problems. This could be due to an individual not having developed an identity sense which normally leads to the fear of commitments. Seventh Stage: Stagnation versus Generativity (35 to 65 years of age) With the approach of middle-age, attention shifts to the concern for future generations from intimacy. Generativity engages an individual’s need to contribute to the society and concerns over guiding the next generation. Most people satisfy this need by rearing off-springs while others feed this need by being productive and creative. Philanthropism and social work are common expressions of generativity. When an individual accepts the challenge of generativity, he or she facilitates the development in trust in the subsequent generation and obtains the psychological strength involving care (Cavanaugh & Fields, 2006). Generativity results in a sense of accomplishment and productivity in individuals. In contrast, a self- centered individual who is unwilling or unable to be of help to the society in moving forward develops a stagnation feeling. The stagnation feeling manifests itself in the form of dissatisfaction towards the relative deficiency in productivity. Eighth Stage: Ego Despair versus Integrity (65 Years of Age and beyond) As one ages and becomes a senior citizen, he or she tends to slow down on productivity and explore life as a retired person. This is the stage when one mostly reflects on life. Individuals who feel unaccomplished in life experience regrets, bitterness and despair while those proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity. The successful completion of this stage involves reflecting back with few regrets and generally feeling satisfied with life. In this stage, individuals have little choice but to resolve the struggle between despair and integrity. This stage begins with an increasing awareness of the nearness of death, and is completed by only a small number of individuals. The main task centers upon the evaluation of one’s life and accomplishments with a view of making sense of life as a whole. This process often is made up of reminiscing with other individuals and the active seeking of reassurance that the individual has accomplished something in life. Individuals who successfully progresses through the earlier stages of life face this stage with a lot of enthusiasm. The psychological strength gotten from this struggle with life is wisdom. Conclusion To Erikson, each stage of psychological development presents unique challenges. These challenges can either strengthen individuals or weaken and diminish them. The confrontation and mastering of each stage equips one with the skills and knowledge to be able to face the next stage. The challenges that are not successfully completed are likely to reoccur and cause problems in the future stages of life. References Bjorklund, B. R. and Bee, H. L. (2008) The journey to adulthood, Pearson Education. Carver,C.S. and Scheir, M.F. (2000) Perspectives on personality, Needham Heights, Allyn and Bacon. Cavanaugh, J.C. and Fields, F. B., (2006) Adult development and aging, Stamford, Cengage learning. Davis, D. and Clifton, A., (1995) Psychological Theory: Erikson, http://www.haverford.edu/psych/ddavis/p109g/erikson.stages.html, (Viewed on 8th February, 2010) Erikson, E.H. (1950) Childhood and Society, New York, Norton. Erikson, E.H. (1968) Identity: Youth and Crisis, New York, Norton. Locke, D.C. and Ciechalski, J. C. (1995) Psychological techniques for teacher, London, Taylor and Francis. Kail, R. V. and Cavanaugh, J.C., (2007) Human development: A life-span view, Stamford, Cengage Learning. 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