The Major Theories of Child Development - Research Paper Example

Introduction Child development entails “the biological and physiological processes that take place from birth to the end of adolescence” (Berk 2006 p. 16). It is usually a steady progression from child hood where the child is highly dependent on the guardian, to the level where an individual attains self dependence. The rate of development depends on the sex, with girls maturing faster than boys. It may also depend on genetic characteristics that are usually inherited from the parents. They mainly affect the size of an individual at various stages of development. For these characteristics to be effective in determining growth in the early childhood stages, environmental factors need to be favorable. Nutrition and health are also significant factors affecting growth. Malnutrition and recurrent injuries as well as disease are major barriers to high rate of development in children. Theories of child development arose as a result of improved research and increased attention that has been given to the field of child development. These theories seek to give an explanation in regard to the various changes observed in children. They are useful for those working in the field of early childhood development since they are able to predict the next stage in the process of development, thereby making the appropriate preparations for enhancement of child growth. They are significant in making clear some aspects of child development that have not been understood. This essay is a critical discussion of the major theories of child development and application of these theories to children's experience. Evidence of an increased awareness of the child's learning capabilities and the factors which may impinge on their learning capabilities has been highlighted. The biological aspects of gender and how individuals become who they are as well as the social learning theory in regard to gender has also been discussed. Theories of Child Development The major theories of child development include; the social learning theories psychoanalytic and cognitive theories. Social Learning Theories These theories point to the environment under which the child grows as having a major impact on development. The involuntary and intended experiences in this environment form the guiding principles of child development. It may be family, friends, school or the society in which the child grows up that determines the development of the child. Acquiring social skills by children is similar to the normal learning whereby individuals acquire skills in the normal activities such as driving or operating machines (Michael, 2003 p. 97). Reasoning capacity and self-discipline are acquired progressively as the child grows up. Administration of punishment or rewarding the children is significant in enhancement of social learning when the child is able to associate particular actions with either of the two. Children also learn through creating a link in their minds in regard to certain spurs. They learn to respond to the stimuli depending on the first reaction. “This kind of learning is referred to as classical conditioning”. (Horwarth 2001 p. 96). In the social context, children usually learn to mimic the actions of others. This is what makes communities in a particular region to behave in a particular way as the actions are passed from generation to generation. Children usually take the actions of those whom they have trust in, for example the guardian or a close relative. They have confidence in such people and believe that their actions are right. The social learning theory is significant in modeling the behavior and the way of thinking amongst the children (Slee, and Shute, 2003 pp. 67-71). As they grow up, the children learn concerning the consequences of behaving in a particular way from the society in which they grow. They drop or maintain such behaviors depending on these consequences. This is what constructs the roles amongst the two sexes, giving rise to gender learning. Boys observe how their fathers or those of their peers behave, and assume that it is the right role of their sex. Similarly, girls tend to take the actions of their mothers, which is significant in maintaining the socially constructed roles that define gender. Social learning is facilitated by rewards and punishment. For example, a girl may be rewarded for baby-sit by the parent while the boy may not. The girl slowly comes to appreciate that it is her role to help parents in such kind of work. More difficult responsibilities are usually performed by men, and this is easy for the children to identify. Boys tend to take up those duties that are meant for their fathers, and feel satisfied when they are able to accomplish them. Rewards help in reinforcing their commitment in such activities (Miller, 2002 pp. 87-91). However, these actions have to be displayed regularly in order for the children to imitate. If the actions are not visible to the children for a period of time, there might not be a tendency to be selective on the roles. This means that gender is something that is passed on to the children by guardians and elders. Without them, the children by themselves can not assume any roles. In some cases, social learning results in a negative understanding of gender, leading to segregation and suppression based on it. For example leaving women overburdened with the task of bringing up children. Under the social learning theory is gender schema supposition whereby the distinctions that are accentuated by the society in regard to gender leads to the development of gender schema in the children. They gain knowledge regarding gender at a very early age, almost after they begin speaking (Ammon, and Levin 1993 p. 54). The choice of toys for example is mainly influenced by the parents. It is rare to find a parent buying the toy of a baby for a boy. These are usually meant for girls who are taught how to carry them on their backs, or at times they observe how grown up women carry their own children and imitate them. The society facilitates this by commenting on the toy especially when the child is able to understand the meaning. For example the society allows comments such as, “You are carrying a baby like a girl!” In such a case, the boy becomes discouraged in his lifetime, and may never want to hold a baby lest he looks like a girl. He grows with the understanding that it is the role of women and girls to carry babies. Hand sewing is also associated with feminine roles in many societies. A girl will be appreciated for sewing a nice part of a sweater but not a boy. Similarly, toys of cars, airplanes, guns and such things are mainly meant for boys. In many societies they are usually not meant for girls. Gender can therefore be attributed to social learning (Howe, 1999 pp. 71-74). According to Erikson’s theory, self-esteem is derived by individuals from interacting socially with other people, and establishing their position amongst others. This is achieved through continuous interaction. Once children understand that they are competent in certain fields, they develop self-esteem and confidence, which can only be achieved through observing the performance of others and gauging themselves upon competition. The child tends to work hard towards attaining competence in a particular field that others view as difficult. This stage is important in determining the future capabilities of the person (Kroll, and Taylor, 2003 p. 61) Cultural values and the social background of the community in which the child grows up are significant in determining the early childhood development. There are usually guiding principles in various cultures on how a child should be treated by the community, and what is expected of the child (Xeniditis et al, 2001 p. 112). There are usually some destined actions that serve as identities for an individual in regard to the community he belongs. The knowledge that is not esteemed by the culture is usually not acquired. This creates the difference that usually exists between communities concerning early childhood development. The manner and the age at which children interact with grown ups is significant in determining the acquirement of skills. The society, in which children grow up, needs to understand the willingness of children to face more challenges as they grow up progressively. That way, people are capable of developing the framework that facilitates attainment of skills in the children. Mentorship is understood to play a significant role in helping the children to acquire the acceptable skills in the society. Most of these skills usually are meant to help the individual in future relations with others within the community as well as outside. Mentors enhance understanding in the children on issues that are difficult to understand on their own. This is usually done through allowing the children to perform some of the tasks on their own while assisting them to perform those in which they get stuck in the process. Culture is learnt progressively, and is usually difficult to change once the child has attained full knowledge of the guiding principles (Pilbeam and Corbridge, 2006 p. 112). This theory points to the integration of culture in to the process of reasoning, collective relations and the ability to determine the appropriate actions that need to be undertaken in particular situations. However, there are certain aspects of development that go beyond culture. These are mainly the biological aspects that remain attached mainly to the genetic factors rather than what the cultural principles state. For example in some cultures, a girl of 20 years is still regarded as a child who is unable to make individual decisions. The biological aspects remain that at this age, such a person has acquired the necessary intelligence and a mature brain to make independent decisions. The Psychoanalytic Theories According to Brooks (1997 p. 56) “these theories were developed by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century”. They are mainly concerned with the development of traits and individual experiences in early child hood. These theories portray personal traits to be determined to a great extent by the experiences of early childhood. It is believed that these experiences determine an individual’s personality through out his/her life. It can be inferred from this that the psychosomatic difficulties that people are faced with in maturity are as a result of the distressing incidents that they faced in early childhood. Boys are known to persevere more than girls in distressing situations. Such situations tend to affect the future person, which is a factor that failure of women to take up leadership positions may be attributed to. The gender inequality that has been practiced in various spheres of development significantly affects women. In many schools, teachers usually pay more attention to boys than they do to girls. This creates a feeling of inferiority in the girls, who eventually believe that they indeed are (Jarvis, 2001 pp.43-51). The theories also point at certain instinctive factors that affect the development of personality. These usually tend to be aggressive, and the conscious mind tends to resist them. This leads to their being “reserved in the unconscious mind, where they largely affect the behavior of a person” (James, 2000 p.134). The individual behaves in a particular a manner without consciousness. These are mainly inherent, and are observable in early child hood, though not pronounced. They become distinct as an individual approaches maturity, which is enhanced by the influence of external factors such as the behavior of other people. Such characteristics are mainly observed in boys who tend to be aggressive and fast to react to external factors, mainly due to their social cultural setting that makes them feel superior to girls. For example a boy may unconsciously react to a slight provocation more than a girl who most likely withdraws from aggression. Such trait is also upheld by the physical characteristics of boys (Flanagan, 1996 pp. 89-91). In these theories, development in children is represented as a progression of phases that are passed through by all children. The theories point to five phases that are referred to as psychosexual stages. As the children progress towards maturity, they tend to be sensitive to their bodily satisfactions. The focus of a particular body part occurs in each phase. The phases as indicated in the theories include the anal phase whereby the child concentrates on satisfying the desire of the mouth, mainly in the first year after birth. According to Horwarth (2001 p. 91) the child most likely “tends to become emotionally fond of the person who provides the satisfaction”. These are usually achieved when the child is fed. He further observes that the rest of the phase up to 3 years is when children learn on self control. This involves training on use of toilet, crying e. t. c. When the children attain the age of 3 to 6 years, the theories point to “the children getting pleasure from genital stimulation” (Hammersley 1993 p. 57). The stage is referred to as the phallic phase. In it, children have a tendency to acquire interest in the notable physical differences as well as associating themselves with the corresponding parent in sex. Between 7 to 11 years is the age that the children begin getting involved in activities such as education without much of activities to derive physical pleasure. This is usually referred to as the latent phase, which is followed by the genital stage whereby the individual become sexually mature. Through all these stages, social influence is usually significant with gender becoming distinct as the children progress through the stages. There are certain biological aspects of gender that have been identified through research. The styles in which children engage in play are influenced by sex hormones that are significant in. Aggressiveness that is usually exhibited in boys is usually as “a result of the male sex hormones known as androgens” (Geoff 2004 p 36). These are responsible for the rough and boisterous behavior that is characteristic of boys’ play styles. On the other hand, girls exhibit tranquil playing behaviors. This leads to the identification of playmates in children that is inclined at selecting the children with similar aspects of play, which is obviously the same sex due to the differences in the occurrence of androgens. This leads to the understanding amongst children that there are particular games for boys while others are meant for girls. It is therefore evident that biological aspects play a major part in developing gender amongst children. Psychosexual development is significant in developing personality. It is believed that personality usually develops at an early age, through psychosexual stages. The requirements in each stage need to be fulfilled in order for the individual to attain sound personality. The motivator for this development is libido which usually drives the individual towards a certain behavior in each stage. Superior traits are acquired through satisfying each stage of this process, failure to which the child is faced with the problem of fixation even as he/she approaches maturity. “Fixation means that an individual maintains some characteristics that are passed in an earlier stage of development”. (Edward, and Hackman, 1998 p. 261). The child may tend to continue sucking the fingers even at an advanced stage of development. It is usually problematic for children to stop such behavior if they were not dropped at the right stage. Some may persist to maturity, for example instead of sucking the fingers; the person may frequently chew gum or smoke. A person fixed at the stage of dependence on others may fail to tackle issues on his/her own, and may constantly be stressed when no one is around to offer assistance, even in simple matters. Cognitive Theories These theories tend to point to the understanding of thinking in children. They are significant in helping those in the field of early childhood development to understand their perceptions towards life experiences whose impact on the children is usually determined by the way they think. This is usually significant whereby a child is exposed to matrimonial wrangles between two parents. The child may tend to lay the blame on him/herself, which may largely affect the behavior of such a child. This is different from a nearly mature child who is able to understand certain problems associated with marriage. It would be helpful for a person when trying to establish the cause of a sudden change in behavior in a child, or preventing the negative impact of such an occurrence. Jean Piaget’s interest in the thinking of children developed a widely accepted theory of cognitive growth (Gross, 2005 pp. 71-77). According to the theory, child development usually undergoes four separate stages in cognitive growth. The stage between birth and two years is the first, whereby a child’s comprehension is usually on the basis of events and sensory incidents. This stage is referred to as sensorimotor. The child is unable to conceptualize thinking or ideas. He reacts to events unconsciously, although the brain is capable of thinking, but is not used for making judgments. From the “age of two to six years, the stage is referred to as preoperational stage” (Ammon, and Levin 1993 p. 27). This is the stage whereby children are capable of conceptualizing their thoughts and ideas. Instantaneous events usually do not affect these thoughts. The ability to speak and hear is significant in figuring out occurrences likely to happen in the near future. This is mainly guided by intuition and the child’s subjective view of such happenings. As the child advances in age from seven years to around eleven years, purposeful reasoning begins. Thoughts are made in a more careful manner, and the child’s understanding is improved. “This is referred to as the concrete operational stage”. (Michael, 2003 p. 87). Beyond this age, the child gains the capability to think creatively and relate ideas associated with ethical issues. They are capable of reasoning and acting independently on their own decisions and make corrections where ideas do not work as planned (Ranga, and Denise, 2006 p. 46). This process is gradual and depends on the experiences that the children face in course of development. They usually adapt the progression to contain the authenticity of the objective thoughts. This is usually enhanced by the internal stimulus which generates understanding and creativity. It means that the efforts by children to appreciate challenges make it possible for them to acquire the desired skills. These theories are significant in providing approaches for understanding the processes of development in the child’s mind. Conclusion Child development is a progression of stages, each of which has unique characteristics. These stages are equally important, and play a significant role in the development of personality, and determination of the future person. Researchers have come up with theories that seek to explain child development. They are useful in helping those working in the field of early childhood development in order for them to be able to predict the next stage of growth that a child is heading hence make appropriate plans in order to enhance this process. The social learning theories are significant in explaining the impact of the behavior of the community in which the child grows. Development usually depends on the principles of the particular social setting. Other theories such as the psychoanalytic and cognitive theories are significant in explaining the various stages of child development. Psychoanalytic theories are mainly concerned with development associated with individual experiences while cognitive theories are concerned with the thinking aspect of development. Bibliography 1. Ammon, P. and Levin B. 1993. Expertise in Teaching from a Developmental Perspective: Learning and Individual Differences, New York: Macmillan. 2. Berk L. E. 2006. Child Development: 7th Edition, Allyn and Bacon. 3. Brooks P. 1997. Consequences of Growing up in a Poor Family: The Impact of Insensitive Parenting, New York: Russell Sage Foundation. 4. Edward, E & Hackman, R. 1998. Education for the Mentally Retarded. Journal of Psychology, 55(3), 259-286. 5. Flanagan, C, 1996. Applying Psychology to Early Child Development. London: Hodder & Stoughton 6. Geoff P. 2004. 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