Persuasion Is Difficult but Not Impossible - Article Example

Persuasion is difficult but not impossible. Discuss in the context of theoretical developments in the field of attitude change. In 1968, Ostrum proclaimed that there were thirty-four models of attitude change (Suedfield, 2007), causing much debate in this field of psychology. Nevertheless, theoretical debates and disagreements are beneficial to development within all psychology disciplines; to the degree that they lead to further important research being conducted that will visibly prove that one theory predicts measures and actions more correctly than another theory. Theories are essential as a descriptive framework, because if there are no overtly acknowledged theoretical relationship between events, their actual correlation to each other could easily be disregarded (Suedfeld, 2007). Attitudes are a central part of human individuality”, Bohner & Wanke (2002, p.3) suggest. An attitude is an individual’s level of negative or positive viewpoint towards an object, person or idea. Therefore, they are conclusions made from evaluations by the individual about something outside of themselves (Strickland, 2001). However, attitudes can be changed through persuasive arguments applied by another person. As the Yale Attitude Change approach suggests, the success of a persuasive comment or statement depends on characteristics of the messenger or communicator, and the source of the comment or statement, plus the content of the comment or statement, and finally characteristics of the audience (Aronson, Wilson & Akert, 2004). In light of this an historical look at the development of attitude changes will be assessed and the models of attitude change analysed, in will include balance theory, the Hovland approach, cognitive dissonance theory, attribution theory and self-perception theory. Balance theory was developed by Fritz Heider (1946), and is founded on an interpersonal theory of consistency. The theory beliefs that balance exists when an individual likes the people they are connected with and dislike the people they are not connected with. Imbalance occurs when the individual dislikes an associated person, or likes someone they are not connected with. Imbalance is creates a stress and anxiety within the individual, and therefore they tend to change one of their cognitive components, in order to readdress the balance (Suedfeld, 2007). However, the Hovland approach was developed with the hypothesis that understanding the verbal substance held in persuasive communications will produce an attitude change in the individual (Hovland, Janis & Kelly, 1953). Hovland & Weiss (1951) and Rhodes & Woods (1992) amongst many other through the years have conducted experimental investigations into the issues that may have an effect on the persuasiveness of a communication. Three characteristics have been identified by these authors; target characteristics, source characteristics and message or communication characteristics. Firstly, target characteristics are the characteristics of the attitude of the individual who is given and then processes that communication. An example of one of these target characteristics is intelligence; another which has been widely studied is self-esteem. Research has shown that the more highly intelligent an individual is the less likely is will be for them to be persuaded by bias or one-sided communications and messages (Rhodes & Woods, 1992). Secondly are source characteristics, the most important source characteristics are knowledge or expertise, reliability or trustworthiness and also attractiveness, or attraction between two individuals. It has been established that the reliability of a perceived communication plays a major role in its ability to persuade an individual (Hovland & Weiss, 1951). Thirdly, message characteristics are characteristics where the character of the communication or message plays a major function in persuading the receiving individual to have a change of attitude. On occasion showing both sides of an argument can be more helpful in changing an individual’s attitudes (Hovland & Weiss, 1951). Therefore it can be seen that it is interested with the change in attitude change and not from behavior change which causes attitude case as in the case of cognitive dissonance theory (Larson, 1989). In cognitive dissonance theory, developed by Festinger (1957), it is asserted that alterations in internal values and attitudes are borne form change in an individual’s behaviour (Larson, 1989). This theory is concerned the notion of cognitive dissonance. An individual will not always amend their beliefs and attitudes in concurrence with persuasive communications. Cognitive dissonance theory offers one potential explanation of the invulnerability of fixed attitudes to ‘rational disconfirmation’. In contrast to the Hovland approach to this subject, cognitive dissonance theory is affirmed as a theory from which ‘non obvious’ outcomes can be made (Larson, 1989). It puts forward the view that contradictions within the cognitive structure create an uncomfortable situation of stress and anxiety, that an individual is then motivated to lessen or remove. The fundamental hypothesis is that an individual’s attitudes are especially interrelated and equally rational. When this balance is disturbed by an increase of contrary cognitions, cognitive or behavioral actions are disrupted until internal consistency is re-established (Larson, 1989). A Later development in attitude change developed into attribution theory of attitude change. Attribution theory believes that there are no internal demands to attain cognitive consistency within the individual, indeed that there are no motivational constructs of any type. Within this viewpoint, individuals are problem solvers, not defenders of their egos. The individual is concerned with understanding interpersonal interaction and communication. Individuals are interested in the meaning of their inactions not cognitive balance, and they want legitimacy, not consistency. Therefore attribution theory describes the individual as reasonably open-minded in their exploration for the truth, unencumbered by the need to retain a positive self-image or maintain a chosen principle. Attribution theory is interested in the individual’s efforts to clarify the actions of daily life, makes deductions about the static properties of their social circumstances and creates predictions on other individual’s behaviour (Larson, 1989). In contrast to attribution theory, Bem’s (1972) self-perception theory explains that individuals will start to understand their own attitudes and emotions, when they have understood their personal behaviours and the social circumstances in which they are living. When internal signals are inconsistent or hard to indentify, the individual has no more of an advantage than if they were a stranger observing them, who has to depend on external signals to be able to make a conclusion in regards to the individual’s cognitive processes. Therefore, individuals who try to understand their personal attitude towards a particular object or person will frequently use their personal actions as a guide to their internal balance (Larson, 1989). In more recent years the theoretical models of attitude change have naturally moved forward, Breckler & Wiggins (1992) show that emotion can be seen as a frequent element in persuasion and attitude change, and also has effects on social influence. A major trial for researchers has been the difficulty of how to determine and calculate emotion and the following impact it can have on an individual’s attitude. It has been established that it is possible to measure and calculate an emotion by using physiological cues such as facial expressions, vocal alterations, and measures of the rates of other body systems (Breckler & Wiggins, 1992). An example of this is when an individual will raise their eyebrows when experiencing fear, in addition to this a marked increase in heart rate can be observed and also an enhancement in the amount of tension held in the muscles (Dillard, 1994). There are other processes used, which consist of concept or network mapping, and in addition the use of primes or word cues (Shavelson & Stanton, 1975). A large amount of exploration on emotion (affective component) and the way in can be used in persuasion to help attitude change centres on the way in which an individual will process communications or messages. Numerous dual process models give explanation of the affective (emotion) and cognitive processing, and hence lead to a further understanding and explanation of the communications. Three of these models are the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), the Heuristic-Systematic Model (HSM) and the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM). Petty & Cacioppo (1986) propose that the ELM , which suggests that cognitive processing is the primary route and affective (emotion) processing is frequently connected with the secondary route. Therefore, this may propose that incentive through only emotion (affective) may not end in the change in an individual’s attitude. However, in the HSM as suggested by Chaiken, Liberman, & Eagly (1989) information from a communication is developed in one of two ways, through maximum effort and participation from the individual or by shortcuts named heuristics. Heuristics such as emotions, feelings and instinctual responses are frequently used as such shortcuts. The EPPM advocated by Witte (1992), comprises of both thinking and feeling in combination with warning and alarm demands. EPPM proposes that persuasive demands and threats work most effectively when an individual has elevated rates of participation and efficiency. Other models of attitude change suggest that to be persuaded is mainly seen as a response-changing process; drivers are persuaded to walk, sunbathers persuaded to put on sunscreen and so on (Dillard & Pfau, 2002). An individual will endeavour to take the primary or central route to persuasion if they have the motivation, together with the capability to concentrate closely to the communications and arguments involved. Aronson et al. (2004) suggests that this is more likely to happen if the focus of the communication has much personal relevance for the individual or the individual has a high requirement for cognition. Individuals may go though the secondary or peripheral route to persuasion if they have either no personal interest in the communications or arguments, they have no inclination to pay close attention or else they do not have the intelligence to do so. In this situation an individual may be persuaded by secondary or peripheral signals such as the charisma or attractiveness of the communicator or by the duration of the communication. Therefore, it can be seen that there are a multitude of theories and models on attitude change which have developed over the years, one of first being balance theory. Another theory developed a little later was Hovland approach (Hovland & Weiss, 1951) which states that an individual’s attitudes may be changed by persuasion from another source or person. Therefore, Hovland (Hovland & Weiss, 1951) believe that attitude and attitude change should be understood as a reaction to a communication, unlike cognitive dissonance theory which believes it is the stress from internal inconsistencies which cause the change of attitude. Attribution theory looks outside of the individual and assess the motivation of others, while self-perception theory understands that individual look to internal understands for their change in attitude. With these multitudes of theories to explain attitude change, it can clearly be shown that the use of persuasion can make an individual change their attitude, it is just not clear how. [Return to the Top of this Page] REFERENCES Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D. & Akert, R. M. (2004). Social Psychology (5th Ed. ). London: Prentice Hall. Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 6, p.1- 61. Breckler, S. J., & Wiggins, E. C. (1992). On defining attitude and attitude theory: Once more with feeling. In A. R. Pratkanis, S. J. Breckler, & A. C. Greenwald (Eds.), Attitude structure and function. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. p. 407-427. Bohner, G. & Wanke, M. (2002). Attitudes and Attitude Change. New York: Psychology Press. Chaiken, S., Liberman, A., & Eagly, A. H. (1989). Heuristic and systematic information processing within and beyond the persuasion context. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh. (Eds.), Unintended thought. New York: Guilford . p. 212-252. 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