An Individuals Behavior Through the Concept of the Unconscious by Freuds Theory - Research Paper Example

 Compare and contrast the five (5) models of acculturation developed by LaFromboise and her colleagues—the multicultural, assimilation, acculturation, fusion and alternation models. Use examples from your various readings to illustrate your answer.        Multicultural model is apparent in a single multicultural community where diverse cultural  identities are preserved. Assimilation model pertains to the event when an individual becomes absorbed by the prevailing or more enviable culture (LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerron, 1993). Common example of assimilation happens among immigrants who adjust and become entirely absorbed to the culture of the new community they live in (Chang, 2001). Acculturation model refers to the competent engagement in a second culture, but still categorized as part of a minority culture. This could also be applied to immigrants living in a foreign community with a large mainstream population of locals (LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerron, 1993; Chang, 2001). Fusion model, by the name itself, is the integration of different cultures in order to form a new culture. Lastly, the alternation model applies to the competence of an individual in two cultures, allowing him/her to alternate between their inherent culture and new culture based on what the circumstances call for (LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerron, 1993). Compare and contrast the cognitive development views of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Explain why these theories are relevant to the field of multicultural psychology.       Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget has been one of the primary thinkers in cognitive development. Central to Piaget's cognitive development theory are the following four major themes: (i) constructivism is the most potent alternative among the three perspectives in epistemology as regards the origin of knowledge; (ii) a child's cognitive development can be depicted in four distinct levels or stages or thought; (iii) structuralism and functionalism are the most potent alternative among the perspectives in epistemology as regards the nature of knowledge; (iv) equilibration is the most essential among the four factors explicating the changes in cognition (i.e., biological maturation, physical experience, socialization, and equilibration) (Byrnes, 2008).       As a reaction and criticism to empiricism and nativism, Piaget developed the constructivist perspective based on his observation and examination of children. By constructivism, Piaget maintains that concepts and ideas are not naturally and immediately acquired; rather, they are learned progressively. The process of acquiring knowledge is not instant but step by step (Byrnes, 2008).       To better illustrate Piaget’s claim that cognitive development is a step by step phenomenon, he developed the four stages of thought or cognitive development: the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete-operational stage, and the formal-operational stage. Sensorimotor stage occurs from a child's birth until about 18 months of age. In this stage, a child's thinking is limited to what is currently happening and lacks awareness about the past or the future. Children at this stage view objects based on their experience of relating with such objects through a motoric or action-based patterns. During the preoperational stage, which starts to occur at about 18-24 months of age, the child gradually develops concepts based on and attached with their habitual and repeated actions. In the concrete operational stage which commences on a child’s fifth or sixth year, children’s thinking capabilities become more composite in a sense that they do not merely ascribe meanings to symbols; instead, they start to think logically with such symbols, making them capable of abstract reasoning. During the last stage known as the formal operational stage, the logical features developed during the concrete operational stage are further enhanced, evident in the children’s ability to formulate hypothesis based on deductive and inductive reasoning and to conduct experimentations (Byrnes, 2008).       In explaining cognitive development, Piaget attempted to illustrate that several structures are needed to aid children in problem solving and goal achievement. While children use such structures in problem solving and find them insufficient during the process, the experience leads to modifications in the structures. In this case, Piaget combines structuralism and functionalism in the theory (Byrnes, 2008).       Moreover, Piaget argues that the most important factor in the changes in thought is equilibration or maintaining the balance between the opposing concepts of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation integrates experience and information into the current structures in the mind and preserves such information in the structures. Accommodation, on the other hand, alters the knowledge structures so as to assimilate problematic ideas (Byrnes, 2008).        Another notable theorist in cognitive development is the Russian psychologist Lev Vygostky. Internalization is the foundation of Vygotskian perspective. It is a process of putting together external and communal experiences on the internal level. In this case, a child would try to solve a problem through the assistance of an adult and in the process, he/she would internalize the dialogue between them so as to aid him/her, thereafter, in doing the same task independently (Fernyhough, 2007).       Another Vygostkian idea is the zone of proximal development, which is the difference between a child’s actual and potential development level in the context of finding solutions to problems independently and with an adult’s guidance. Vygotsky recognizes the significance of imitation and language in a child’s cognitive development (Vygotsky, 1978).        While Piaget and Vygotsky agree that thought development is a gradual and socially originated process, they differ in what they deem to be the most significant factor contributing to higher forms of mental functioning. As stated above, Piaget places substantial credit to equilibration.  Although Piaget recognizes that social conversation between a child and an adult advances the shift from sensorimotor to preoperational stage, he argues that the advancement is not really that progressive (Byrnes, 2008). In contrast, Vygotsky puts considerable emphasis on the importance of culturally derived semiotics, such as symbols and language. With the concept of internalization, he acknowledges not only the importance of social language but also the significance of the child's use of private speech in the process of learning, resulting in the child's independent fulfillment of a certain task over time. Piaget did not accept the concept of private speech and importance of semiotics in cognitive development while Vygotsky's theory is central to such ideas (Fernyhough, 2007). Culturally, how does individualism differ from collectivism? Provide an overview of the two concepts and illustrate your answer with examples from your reading.       In cultural psychology, individualism and collectivism are paradigms that elucidate the differences in the manner by which the connection between individuals and societies are interpreted. The two concepts also help in determining the central unit of analysis in a study between individuals and groups. The individual is the central unit of analysis in individualism while the group is the central unit of analysis in collectivism (Oyserman & Lee, 2008).       As the name implies, individualism treats the individual as the focal point. In this case, the role of the societies is the advancement of the welfare and interests of individuals. Individuals are deemed distinct and independent of each other.       On the other hand, the group is the fundamental element in collectivism. In a collective setting, it is the individual that must adapt so as make he/she becomes suitable for the group. Individuals are not regarded separately; rather, they are perceived to be essentially associated and interconnected by virtue of social relations and group membership (Oyserman & Lee, 2007).       In several organizations, collectivistic values are encouraged to be embraced because, according to research, such values uphold teamwork and efficiency. In contrast, individualistic values should not be promoted because they tend to instigate conflict and opportunism.  Culturally speaking, the difference between individualistic and collectivistic values is underscored on the independence and interdependence with one’s group. According to Markus and Kitayama, individualism is characterized by independence and uniqueness, which make individuals separately distinguishable from other people. On the contrary, a collectivistic society is depicted as a group of interdependent people (Goncalo & Staw, 2006).       There are several literatures that substantiate the argument that there are significant differences in individualism and collectivism among countries. Results of analysis through scale values show that North Americans have higher level of individualism and lower level of collectivism as compare to other people of different nationality. Countries with English as native language also score high in individualism and low in collectivism. A previous study by Oyserman, Coon, and Kemelmeier found out that there is a strong correlation between individualism and collectivism and differences in self-concept, social relationships, and cognitive type (Oyserman & Lee, 2007).       In discussing individualism and collectivism, the concept of the family is a significant social construct.  An individualist would only attend to his/her immediate family with a greater level of independence while a collectivist would remain attached not only with his/her immediate family but also to his/her extended family through time. On Hofstede’s scale of individualism and collectivism, Germany could be considered as an individualistic country with a score of 89 while Guatemala could be regarded as strongly collectivistic with a score of 6.  Germans have given a strong emphasis on attaining personal goals and promoting individual rights. Their familial relationships are not as tightly related compared to people of other countries (“Individualism”, n.d.). Describe four (4) examples of cultural bias in testing and explain their impact on the test outcomes. What are some of the ways to avoid bias in testing?       Cultural bias has been one of the most critical issues in testing. Among the examples of tests which are deemed to be biased are the following: (i) The Australian/American Intelligence Test (10-item test based on the standard Western-European intelligence tests); (ii) The Original Australian Intelligence Test (10-item test on the basis of the culture of Edward River Australian Aboriginal community in North Queensland); (iii) Chilting Test of Intelligence (30-item multiple choice test based on black-ghetto experiences and developed as a reaction to the fact that American children speak different language); and (iv) the Redden-Simons “Rap” Test (50-item test developed using street language in 1986 in Des Moines, Iowa) (Cultural Bias in Testing, n.d.).       Examples of cultural bias in testing are usually related to race, income, gender, and language. These sorts of cultural bias are apparent in the United States. Common targets of cultural bias are the African Americans. According to Miller, as cited by (Farr, n. d.), African Americans score in tests significantly lower than whites, that is, one standard deviation below the whites. In other words, it might seem that the average white is more excellent than 84% of the African Americans and only around 16% of African Americans are considered better than an average white (Farr, n. d.).  Most of the gaps in intelligent quotient could also be attributed to socioeconomic status. Herrnstein and Murray, in their book entitled The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life, assert that race and socioeconomic status are statistically associated. To connect with the issue of intelligence, the same book argues that low economic status and low intelligence levels are also related (Farr, n. d.).  Another factor that may promote cultural bias is the fact that the kind and content of most textbooks are written in the context considerably taking into account the values of the prevailing and dominant culture.       Although cultural bias has been a crucial problem in testing, there already have been efforts to eliminate such bias. The decisions of the court with respect to cases of psychological testing for Special Education have a substantial impact on the uses of achievement tests. To address the problem of cultural bias in terms of racial differences, tests have to be developed fairly to cater non-native speakers or second language speakers and students with disabilities. These were done by facilitating tests without time pressure and by developing tests with translations (Schellenberg, 2004).       There were also continuing changes in the way achievement tests are designed and formatted. Multiple choice-type of tests were also revised into types of assessment that would encourage freer responses. However, the problem here would be the more difficult standardization of human assessment and a time-consuming and costly implementation on a larger scale (Schellenberg, 2004).       In the United States, the implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) is also a strong and effective response to the issue of eliminating cultural bias in testing. Strict implementation of the law will definitely have a positive impact in addressing cultural bias. According to the law, all targeted subgroups (five racial/ethnic groups, Limited English Proficient students, students with disabilities, and low income students) must be provided with high quality of education.  Needless to say, expected effects will only be observed if there is a fair and equal treatment of all the aforesaid subgroups. Hence, such law stipulates that each state must form its own standardized test, carefully taking precaution critical of test biases (Schellenberg, 2004). Discuss the major criticisms of the psychodynamic theories based on Sigmund Freud's Theory of Personality from a multicultural psychological perspective. What are some of the alternate theories of behavior and how useful are they to multicultural psychology?        Psychodynamic theory is formulated on the basis of the conflict existing between the conscious and unconscious of a person.  Psychodynamics gained attention because of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, followed by other theorists who formulated their own variation of the concept.       Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis introduced different concepts which explain an individuals’ behavior mainly through the concept of the unconscious such as dreams, slip of the tongue, and odd behavior. Freud categorized biological instincts as Eros (sexual and life instincts) and Thanatos (aggressive and death instints), which are compelling factors that induce an individual’s personality. He also divided the personality structure into the three components of id (psychic energy and instincts), ego (intermediary between the id and the environment), and superego (moral ground of the personality, functioning like a conscience). Other elements of Freud’s psychoanalysis are three psychosexual stages occurring during childhood (i. e., oral, phallic, and anal stages), noting odd fixations happening in each stage. Freud has been controversial in his concept of the Oedipal complex (the boys’ sexual desire for their mothers and tendency to leave out their fathers), the Electra complex (the girls’ sexual desire for their fathers), and penis envy (the girls’ association of their lack of penis to their lack of self-esteem) (Good & Beitman, 2006).       This Freudian psychology received a great deal of criticisms among therapists as well as feminists. According to some therapists, Oedipal and Electra complexes are simply fabricated by Freud’s fantasies. Feminists regard the concept of penis envy as a patriarchal concept, regarding to the male’s cultural advantage (Good & Beitman, 2006).       Aside from Freud, there are other proponents of psychodynamic theories. Among the most popular is Carl Jung. Jung introduced the concept of individuation, which, according to him, is the end of the journey to completeness and authenticity. According to Jung, individuation is met when an individual realizes his/her limitations and admitting them. Jungian psychology is also well-known for its dream interpretation and development of the so-called archetypes. Among the most common archetypes are the persona (mask worn by an individual), the shadow (portion of the unconscious that an individual denies), the self (indication of the consciousness), and the anima and animus (female and male archetypes) (Good & Beitman, 2006).       Another psychodynamic theory is the one conjectured by Alfred Alder. He asserts that the struggle for superiority is the primary motive of humans. Such struggle for fulfillment and development fuels up other human drives. On the contrary, an individual’s inferiority complex may result from physical, psychological, and social flaws and powerlessness. While the feeling of superiority leads to improvement, the feeling of inferiority results in common errors and poorly adapted goals. Alder also accentuated the idea of the birth order. According to Alder, a person’s position in the family determines the expectations he will form and the kind of life that he/she lives (Good & Beitman, 2006).       If Freud concentrated on the id, his daughter Anna Freud and her student Erik Erikson puts the development of ego at the center of their study. This so-called ego psychology deals with the notions of identity, intimacy, ego integrity, and defense mechanisms (Good & Beitman, 2006).       On the other hand, John Bolby’s attachment theory maintains that the fundamental responsibility of a caregiver to facilitate the child’s secured attachment to the mother. Other psychodynamic theorists include Donald Winnicott who brought in the concept of transitional objects, the good enough mother, the true, and the false self. Winnicott’s concepts are a variation of the caregiver-child relationship (Good & Beitman, 2006).       Although early psychodynamic theories are mostly focused on the unconscious, later theories also underscored the role of the conscious. Since most psychodynamic theories deal with the intrapersonal nature, their relationship with culture is quite unlikely. However, if we delve more deeply into the issue, they could actually aid in analyzing the diversities in a multicultural society.    References “Individualism”. (n. d.). Clearly cultural: making sense of cross cultural communication.  Retrieved January 8, 2009, from http://www.clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/individualism/. Byrnes, J. P. (2008). Encyclopedia of infant and early childhood development, 543-552. Chang, C. (2001). Creating a cultural identity: an examination of the current movement toward bi-cultural socialization of Chinese adoptees. Retrieved January 8, 2009, from http://www.adoptionpolicy.org/pdf/cultural_id.pdf. Farr, J. P. (n. d.). “Race and IQ, Heredity and Oppression”. Retrieved January 8, 2009, from http://www.theafrican.com/Magazine/IQ.htm. Fernyhough, C. (2007). Getting Vygotskian about the theory of mind: Mediation, dialogue, and the development of social understanding. Developmental Review(28). Goncalo, J. A. & Staw, B. M. (2005). Individualism – collectivism and group activity. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 96-109. Good, G. E. & Beitman, B. D. (2006). Counselling and psychotherapy essentials: integrating theories, skills, and practices. LaFromboise, T., Coleman, H.., & Gerton, J. (1993). Psychological impact of biculturalism: evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 114(3). Oyserman, D. & Lee, S. W. S. (2008). Does culture influence what and how we think? Effects of priming individualism and collectivism. Psychological Bulletin, 134(2). Schellenberg, S. J. (2004). Test bias or cultural bias: have we really learned anything? A paper presented as part of the symposium “The Achievement Gap: Test Bias or School Structures?” sponsored by the National Association of Test Directors as part of the Annual Meeting of the National Council for Measurement in Education. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.  Read More