Learning and Conditioning Applied to Psychology - Coursework Example

Psychology: Learning In the field of psychology, there are two types of learning methods: ical and operant. ical conditioning is atype of associative learning in which a behavior is learned with the help of an independent stimulus, something that serves no real purpose or connection to the desired behavior, as well as a dependent stimulus. Operant conditioning, a phenomenon involving voluntary behavior, is when consequences or rewards, or reinforcements and punishments, are administered to get the expected behavior from the subject. Some of the founders and early practitioners of the learning and conditioning models are Ivan Pavlov, who first came upon the idea of the independent stimulus in provoking behavior in a subject, and Edward Thorndike, who came up with the Law of Effect and the ideas of rewards and punishments in regards to voluntary behavior in operant conditioning. Introduction Learning and conditioning are vital parts of any human’s mental, physical, and emotional growth, which is one of the main reasons why I choose this as my topic. Without learning and conditioning, human beings – as well as other living creatures – would continue to make the same mistakes, over and over again. It is because of conditioning that we are able to adapt to certain situations and gain an understanding to why we react, or do not react, in the ways that we do or do not. Learning and conditioning apply to psychology in the sense that psychologists are able to observe and understand how their subjects learn in response to their given situations and environments. They can also research and discover other methods to use on their subjects to see how they respond to the situation. It allows psychologists to understand the workings of the subject’s mind and their ability to adapt to their environment. Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is an associative learning process by which the subject is presented with a neutral stimulus, or a conditioned stimulus, which is an event that does not normally call for a behavioral response, and a stimulus that has some significance towards a behavior or reaction, which is also called an unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response (Pavlov). One the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are repeatedly put together, they eventually become associated and the subject begins to produce a behavior towards that conditioned stimulus. Ivan Pavlov and Pavlov’s Dogs One of the most famous experiments in classical conditioning – the experiment that brought out the theories and methods of classical conditioning – is Pavlov’s dogs. After observing that dogs salivated by merely being in the presence of meat powder, Pavlov theorized that, when surrounded by a stimulus that is in the presence of the meat powder, the dogs would associate the stimulus with the food, thus being conditioned to drool when in the presence of that stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment, Pavlov would use bells to call the dogs to their food. Once at their food, the dogs would salivate. After being repeatedly called to their food by the use of bells, the dogs would begin to salivate at the sound of the bells. They were conditioned to associate the sound of bells with their food. This is what is known as a conditioned response, or a learned relationship. Types of Classical Conditioning There are five different types of classical conditioning: forward, simultaneous, backward, temporal, and unpaired (Heffner). In forward conditioning, the conditioned stimulus would come and go prior to the unconditioned stimulus. There are two types of forward conditioning: delay conditioning and trace conditioning. In delay conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is not present as long as the conditioned stimulus, but is removed at the same time. In trace conditioning, the conditioned stimulus is presented, then there is a time when there is no stimulus, and then the unconditioned stimulus is given. In backward conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus comes first, followed immediately by the conditioned stimulus, as opposed to traditional conditioning. This allows the conditioned stimulus to signal that the unconditioned stimulus has come and gone. Temporal conditioning is when the unconditioned stimulus is given to the subject at regular intervals and the conditioned response is dependent on the continuous timing of the presentations. Unpaired conditioning involves the stimuli being presented separately, which is to allow researchers to study non-associative behavior. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is a method of conditioning that involves modifying one’s voluntary behavior through the uses of rewards, punishments, and consequences (Mazur). Once the person or creature is subjected enough to a specific punishment, they learn to fear that behavior; likewise, if they are rewarded enough, they will learn to display that behavior more often. Once the subject realizes the negative response they get when they do something, they will cease to do that thing. When the subject realizes that they will be positively rewarded for something, they will begin to do it more often. Reinforcement, punishment, and extinction Reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are the methods used in operant conditioning to instill certain behaviors in subjects. Reinforcement and punishment can either be positive or negative – positive usually delivered following a response while negative is usually removed following a response. Extinction is when there is absolutely no change to the consequences following the response. Reinforcement will cause a certain behavior to occur more often, punishment will cause a behavior to occur less often, and extinction, producing neither negative or positive consequences, will also cause a behavior to occur less often. When a positive reinforcement takes place, a happy or pleasant stimulus is presented, which increases how often that behavior is seen. When it is a negative reinforcement, something unhappy and unwanted is presented. In positive punishment, an aversive stimulus is presented, such as a spanking, which decreased that behavior. In negative punishment, something pleasurable is taken away to decrease behavior. Edward Thorndike and the Law of Effect Edward Thorndike was the first person who thoroughly studied the theories and practices of operant conditioning. He first tested his experiments on animals, such as cats and mice, keeping them in boxes and trying to condition them to find their way out. During these studies, Thorndike came upon his Law of Effect, in which he theorizes that through reinforcement, punishment, and extinction, positive responses can allow that behavior to be remembered and occur more often, while negative responses will be forgotten and occur less, the more that those reinforcements, punishments, and extinctions occur (Smith). Learning and Conditioning Both methods of conditioning – classical and operant – are used in everyday life with everyday people. These methods are so common that they are often done unconsciously, such as when a child is punished for doing something wrong. Their parent can administer a number of punishments and reinforcements, like taking away a toy, spanking them, or sending them to their room. After a while of going through these, the child learns that what they are doing is wrong and that behavior ceases. Another example can be seen in a student’s grades compared to how often they study. When they study and pass a test, they receive a good grade and praise from their teacher. Once they understand this pattern, they will strive for those reinforcements and continue to study so that they may receive those rewards. Part of conditioning, aside from learning for or against certain behaviors, is to learn to want or fear certain reinforcements or punishments. When the subject sees how wonderful a positive reinforcement is, they will soon be conditioned to want that reinforcement more – they will strive to get it as often as possible. Just as with negative reinforcement, as they see how horrible it can be, they strive to never bring it upon themselves again. As human beings begin learning and are conditioned from a young age, they start to develop patterns in regards to their behavior. Conclusion Methods of conditioning are constantly being used to instill or to rid of certain behaviors. They also go to show that positivity will be rewarded as such, as will negativity. Not only is conditioning literal learning experiences of behavior, but they allow both subjects and observers to understand the workings of behavior, reinforcements, and punishments. Both methods are commonly used with parents, teachers, and other authoritative figures, such as police officers or other law enforcement officials. While the general, traditional methods of conditioning have yet to change or be altered, they have been added upon with optional ways to apply those methods. They are “improved” upon to meet the needs of each growing era. They also still remain to be highly useful in the studies and practices of psychology as observers and researchers strive to understand why people act and react in the ways that they do. References Heffner, Dr. Christopher. (2001). Learning theory and behavioral psychology. Retrieved 12 Nov 2008 from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/conditioning.html. Mazur, James. (2005). Learning and behavior. USA: Prentice Hall. Pavlov, Ivan. (2003). Conditioned reflexes. USA: Dover Publications. Smith, Terry. (1994). Behavior and its causes: Philosophical foundations of operant psychology. Springer London, Limited. Read More