Effectivness of Cycling Interventions - Case Study Example

EFFECTIVENESS OF CYCLING INTERVENTIONS: A STUDY OF INCENTIVE-BASED INTERVENTIONS VERSUS EDUCATION-BASED INTERVENTIONS This study involved 10primary schools and a Junior School in three boroughs in London. They were divided into three groups – Go-Bike, an incentive-based group with three schools (St. John Vianney RC Primary School, Stamford Jill Primary School and Risley Avenue Primary School) ; Bike-It, an education-based group with four schools (Sroud Green Promary School, Seven Sisters Primary School, High Gate Primary School and Chestnuts Primary School); and a control group, with four schools (St. Francisde Sales Junior School, Mulberry Primary School, Tiverton Primary School and Bruce Grove primary School). The study examines impact of incentives and education on changes in behaviour in pre-intervention and post-intervention periods among the subject groups of volunteers. Introduction Interventions through “go bike” and “bike it” programs at school level are intended to be incentive-based and education-based respectively. The efficacy of such interventions has often been questioned by both experts and lay people on the ground that they do not produce the intended results despite the much hyped positive impact on the society at large and the participants in particular. Those who support such programs argue that interventions of this nature necessarily produce positive outcomes in relation to the direct impact on the environment and the participants. However, those who are not in favour of such intervention schemes point out that there aren’t particularly impressive positive results arising out of them. Incentive-based cycling programs introduced at Go-Bike schools have been known to produce more positive outcomes in any society. In economically advanced societies, incentives have to be particularly strong to appeal to the core element of the society. There are both pull-factors and push-factors behind such incentive-based intervention schemes. The former includes what’s offered by the authorities who are the implementers of the program while the latter includes the benefits of the post-interventionist period. Education-based cycling programs are intended to enlist the involvement of Bike-It schools that might go it alone. Education-based intervention programs minimize compulsion but place an extra burden on resources and the school curriculum. As a corollary education-based interventionist programs inevitably lead to a secondary phase of intervention in which policy issues have to be tackled to achieve desirable outcomes of the program. Quasi-experimental educational interventions might not produce the same results that are usually yielded by scientifically designed programs (Phye, Robinson and Levin, 2005. p.209). The psychological impact of such interventionist programs is not adequately assessed in many instances, due to the lack of practicable metrics to be adopted in measuring the hidden influences and their impact on those who are involved in such programs. There are two diametrically opposed views on the subject of psychological impact of intervention programs, be they at schools or any other institution. These views are concerned with both the conceptual and methodological issues of intervention. From the view point of pros a modal shift from vehicles to cycling could necessarily have a positive trans-theoretical impact on the model of behavior or correspondingly on the planned behaviour model. On the other hand contradictors of this opinion hold the opposite view that a modal shift from vehicles to cycling does not have a positive trans-theoretical impact on the model of behavior of the subjects. These theoretical arguments and counter-arguments apart, there is a physiological or physical dimension to it. According to those who advocate that such interventions be implemented for the sake of their positive physical impact on the participants, positive outcomes outweigh negative ones. Those who seek to downplay the significance of physical benefits to individuals, argue that interventions do not increase the quality of an individual’s life or lifestyle. According to them interventions bring about a shift in behavior only as a temporary change. They do not necessarily alter lifestyles of individuals. However, I will avoid as far as possible these stereotypical arguments in order to focus attention on the most appropriate analytical perspectives. Research methodology My research methodology for this research project is classified into two main divisions. They are (a) Qualitative research (b) Quantitative research. (a) Qualitative research Qualitative research aspect of the project will include an analysis of the benefits, both perceived and real, and costs, both perceived and real in order to shed light on the theoretical issues and practical dynamics of the intervention program. Altogether 11 schools were co-opted in the intervention program and they were divided into three groups – Go Bike Schools, i.e. incentive-based interventions group, Bike-It Schools, i.e. education-based interventions group and the control or focus group. The GO-Bike group was offered incentives such as stationery, rucksacks, water bottles, jackets and tee-shirts, through a scheme of topping a cycling-to-school list. The list was maintained in order to record which pupil cycled to school on which day etc. Finally, an overall winner was chosen and presented with a mountain bike. As for the for the Bike-It group, they were given educational advice on how to assemble and repair their bikes; events such as “love your bike day” were held; were encouraged to make fancy accessories to put on their bikes; and breakfasts were organized for those pupils who cycled to school. This group also participated in competitions that were all focused on organizing “a Tour de Afrique”. They were told how they could cycle it to the African Continent one day in the future. It is more or less a virtual tour that might need a lot of effort by way of organization and monetary means. The participants of the Bike-It education-based group were enlisted on the basis of a program of intensive education on the merits and demerits of cycling to and from school. The all pervasive atmosphere of success of such programs is attributed to the spirit of citizenry. However, enthusiasm, in itself, is not an adequate guarantee against over-indulgence by way of flaunting wealth, viz. coming to school in limousines. This group was told in advance what they would be contributing to social welfare if they chose cycling as a mode of travel to and from school. The qualitative aspect of this research paper will be borne out by the exceptional care that I have taken in scrutinizing the broader methodological and conceptual implications arising out of the intervention program during both the pre-intervention period and the post-intervention period. For example the qualitative paradigm has been stretched beyond its ordinary contextual perimeter to accommodate a perspective-centric analytical structure with a highly impartial investigation of the perceived and real merits and demerits of interventions. One of the highlights of the program and the research effort is the quality of design and execution. The Theory of Planned Behaviour establishes a link between attitudes and actions of individuals. As a persuasion theory it is able to predict changes in planned actions of individuals as a result of attitudes being subject to influence through intervention. It is an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action and was proposed by Icek Aizen in 1985. I hope to apply the theoretical premises of this theory of planned behavoiur to analyse pre-intervention and post-intervention behaviours of the participants. To lesser extent there will be some references to Cognitive Dissonance Theory and Trans-theoretical Model of Behaviour. Pupils from all schools were subject to a hands-up survey at the class level. Their responses were recorded along with my own observations. Throughout the surveys clarity of questions and answers were ensured to minimize error coefficient to a manageable level. The hands-up surveys consisted of four oral questions and responses to them. The suggestive element in questions was reduced to almost zero so that responses were recorded as spontaneous reactions to what the questions overtly meant. The questions just elicited the information on how they would like to travel to school. Next, an attitude survey was carried out with 34 questions being administered to all schools in the three groups. The first part of the survey covered their attitudes to cycling as an alternative mode of travel and other options such as walking, bussing and traveling by a car. Their preferences were recorded as graded responses to achieve a degree of accuracy. Table 1: The matrix of participant schools and their respective pupil populations Type of interaction GO BIKE (incentive) No of pupils BIKE IT (educational) No of pupils CONTROL SCHOOL No of pupils Name of school St John Vianney RC Primary School 233 Stroud Green Primary School 383 St Francis de Sales Junior School 356 Name of School Stamford Hill Primary School 238 Seven Sisters Primary School 504 Mulberry Primary School 684 Name of School Risley Avenue Primary School 601 Highgate Primary School 394 Tiverton Primary School 384 Name of School Chestnuts Primary School 401 Bruce Grove Primary School 412 Parameters of the qualitative research aspect of this program have been clearly defined to avoid both conventional and unconventional biases and prejudices that often bedevil similar work. For instance the questionnaires were designed and administered with a view to avoiding duplication of effort and encouraging positive response on the part of respondents. Similarly the causal factors that underlie planned behaviour theory have been given due weight in the process of sifting through data. The pre and post periods of interventions were subject to the same level of evaluation and investigation. The parameters of the qualitative research aspect include the following. The social dimension of the study, as determined by participants’ attitudes and predilections The behavioural perspectives from the viewpoint of both the sociologist and the social psychologist. The impact assessment approach, as unbiased and unprejudiced. Substantial and equal emphasis on all as aspects of the research effort. The use of substantial analytical tools Application of a variety of approaches such as individual, social and cultural. Quoting from a multitude of sources to support my arguments. There is still a large body of literature that need to be adequately analysed in order to produce a more coherent research paper on this subject. Attitudes surveys have yielded much of the qualitative research content, though other data too were sifted to detect and dissect trend-setting opinions which were so much responsible for the subsequent appeal of the cycling idea to the focus groups. Apart from the above, I have particularly noticed a striking similarity between planned behavioural tenets and incentives that gave rise to my hypothesis. Here the qualitative paradigm is greatly influenced by positive outcomes of the all three categories of beliefs as outlined by Ajzen in his exposition of the Theory of Planned Behaviour. The following figure illustrates the structural outline of this program. Figure 1: The three-phase education-based interventions cycle N.B. Trans-theoretical behavior model is based on a systematic analysis of the post-interventions results borne out by positive or negative changes in behavior as a result of interventions. (b) Quantitative research Quantitative research in this paper is basically focused on the following areas. I must at the very beginning point out that my quantitative research aspect is much less emphasized due to the fact that I have been seeking to focus strongly on the pivotal significance of qualitative research to analyse pre and post intervention periods so that I would be able to define the limits of my research and codify the different strands of theory. My quantitative research aspect attempts to establish a series of positive and negative correlations by sifting the data. The quantitative analysis in this paper will involve the following. Measures of central tendency Measures of dispersion Measures of central tendency will include mean, median and mode while measures of dispersion will include regression, variance and so on. I will calculate them separately and present the results by way of concise and precise data in my analysis. The following summary outline shows how the quantitative aspect of my research will be constituted. 1. Data gathering process 2. Calculating measures of central tendency and dispersion 3. Analysing raw data for significant information 4. Sifting data to come to conclusions on convergence toward and divergence from a central tendency. 5. Establishing correlations between tendentious behaviour and non-tendentious behaviour. 6. Testing outcomes against theoretical postulates. 7. Finally setting out proof of research. Figure 2: Stages of quantitative research process A significant proportion of quantitative research will be carried out under the strictest conditions to ensure that theoretical developments in the subject are closely followed to analyse data and form conclusions. As for the interviews and questionnaires there would be some lapses because some of the respondents are invariably inclined to provide wrong information. I will exercise great precaution to establish a margin of error that will closely resemble the real divergence from the reality. Evaluation (a) Theoretical analysis Intervention programs that seek to achieve a qualitative and quantitative change in the planned behaviour model of the individual participant in the intervention program during the post-intervention period, are desinged with utmost care to ensure compatibility with the existing theories. For instance with a margin of error equal to + or – 1.5, the study was focused on establishing a correlation between attitudes and planned behaviour of participants in the study. A basic strategic norm used in the research is that the pre-intervention participants were closely followed to the post-intervention period. The schools in the incentive-based Go-Bike group came out fairly well during the post-intervention period. The focus group in this category recorded a rate of two thirds positive participation and was evaluated on the basis of their consistent involvement, while other variables such as weather and private vicissitudes were held to be constant. A coefficient of one was assigned to each group and any deviation from the given coefficient was recorded as either plus or minus depending on the value. The Go-Bike group lost roughly 0.33 points out of 1 and maintained a constant level of participation that matched results from similar studies previously carried out by other researchers. According to trans-theoretical model of behaviour there is an array of conceptual dimensions that, in turn, are centered on a set of core constructs. These core constructs, in turn, characterize a systematic order of behavioural categories that border on a continuum of motivational impetus to change one’s problematic behaviour (Burbank, 2001, p.109). Processes of change, which are some independent variables, cause a series of transitions between different phases of change. According to the author, the model has a number of outcome variables as well. For example there is a decisional balance that enables the researcher to weigh advantages and disadvantages of intervention. There is also another outcome variable, i.e. self-efficacy which explains the level of the subject’s confidence to change problematic behaviour across a range of problem situations. The author also identifies some situational temptations which carry with them a marker of compulsion that’s irresistible from the viewpoint of the participant or volunteer. They compel the subject to engage in the problematic behaviour. Next I applied the Planned Behaviour Theory. It’s this theory that I use in much of the analysis here to establish correlations and conclusions. This theory links behaviour and attitudes of the individual and is based on the subjective (not objective) probability that a certain behaviour will produce a certain outcome. Thus attitude plays a pivotal role here because it is the individual’s positive or negative aspect of that behaviour which produces the attitude. Thus, in my study the pre-intervention and post-intervention analysis of attitudes of the volunteers involved shows a definite correlation between attitudes and the change in behaviour. Indeed the outcomes are directly influenced by a host of other variables such as social, familial and psychological factors. My hypothesis The logical link between interventions and planned behaviour is necessarily skewed in favour of incentive-centric intervention programs while education-centric interventions to change behaviour do not generate the same amount of enthusiasm among participants. According to Planned Behaviour Theory human actions are governed by three sets of beliefs – behavioural beliefs, normative beliefs and control beliefs. I make use of this theory to analyse how the subjects in my study behaved in accordance with it or if there was a deviation how much they deviated from it and so on. Behavioral beliefs bring about favorable or unfavorable attitudes towards the behavior and therefore in my study such attitudes are based on incentives and perceived value judgments. On the other hand normative beliefs lead to social pressure and strict regimes of norms. Finally control beliefs entail some behavioural control that will be perceived as essential for success. Practical analysis The Go-Bike group again displayed a tendency of centripetal behaviour in keeping with the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). The incentives offered were not substantial though, the group responded with a remarkable score of 0.66 out of a coefficient of 1. On the other hand the education-based group, Bike-It, scored 0.58 out of a coefficient of 1. As for the control group the observations were mostly predictable enough. The volunteers in the control group consisting of 1,836 pupils from all four schools basically conformed to the predictable pattern of behaviour, i.e. they did not show any remarkable variance in their pre-intervention behaviour. The post-intervention behaviour of this group nearly matched their pre-intervention behaviour. While the Go-Bike group consisting of 1,072 students from all three schools had a focus group of 250, the Bike-It group consisting of 1,682 pupils from four schools, had a focus group of 400. These samples were determined on the basis of controllability and manageability. The focus sample in the Go-Bike group showed a remarkable conformity to the three sets of beliefs in the TPB as outlined above. Again out of a coefficient of 1 this focus group scored 0.89. On the other hand the focus group in the Bike-It category scored 0.65. These results were, then, tallied with the control group to see how the control group behaved. This group always consistently showed no positive variance despite the fact that they were lectured on some of the benefits of cycling to and from school in advance. The response of them was typical of what other researchers had observed elsewhere. Thus it is clear that interventions produce positive outcomes while non-intervention ensures continuous neutrality. The polemical issues such as social, psychological and geographical factors could have played a more significant role in influencing planned behaviour had to be ignored to register observed variances as purely determined by the causal interventions and nothing else. However as I have already mentioned, a margin of error equal to + 0.5 or – 0.5 was assigned to all calculations of variances and correlations. The Go-Bike group, with the focus group more skewed towards the KS2 pupils whose ages ranged from 7 to 12 years, showed a greater degree of willingness to chalk up positive scores. This tendency has been attributed to a mixture of incentives by other researchers. For example it could be attributed to competitive spirit and even dynamic characteristic qualities. It is technically known as perceived behavioural control. “The greater the perceived behavioural control, the stronger should be the individual’s intentions to perform the behaviour” (Ajzen and Manstead, 1988, p.133). The three primary determinants of intentions, according to Ajzen, are attitudes towards the behaviour, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control. The Go-Bike group had a similar élan to succeed that was a remarkable trait that went in conformity with the TPB and therefore the perceived behavioural control. As for the Bike-It group there were no marked similarities with the former group though they too displayed a very common tendency to be positive. The degree of their positive behaviour did not exactly match the former, though. Educational parameters were not stretched beyond the basic minimum of instructions to the Bike-It group. Ajzen refers to very highly valued regressions in cases where perceived behavioural control becomes intense. Despite an unusual amount of enthusiasm generated initially by the program, there was no marked positive response from the Bike-It group. A randomized response technique could have been adopted to test the degree of variance in their behaviour so that their behaviour could be subject to a random evaluation of response rather than a consistent technique (Eagly and Chaiken, 1997, p.74). The normative beliefs that Ajzen discusses in his book have been enlarged on by other writers on the subject with a wider focus on what the society at large would succeed in imposing on the subject (PAHO, 2005, p.88). These theoretical paradigms have produced a whole gamut of literature on the Theory of Planned Behaviour. The Go-Bike group and the Bike-It group, both, were closely observed to detect any semblance of normative beliefs. Indeed, the focus groups were noticed to have had been influenced by the society at large. The focus group of the Go-Bike sample of study reflected a stronger tendency to conform to societal norms such as expectations about performance and conformity. The correlation was strong enough to warrant a greater value parameter and the focus group of the Bike-It group also displayed a considerable degree of conformity to societal influences. Behavioural psychologists describe such normative beliefs to have overriding motivational rigor on the individual subject. There is a new vision of success coming from this belief (Feinstein et al, 2005, p.176). Conclusion Those who took cycling more seriously began to exhibit a stronger inclination to be motivated by both incentives and education. The incentive-based approach tended to produce perceptively dynamic correlations and regressions. New social constructs created by the phenomenon of achievement invariably create a paradigm of choice as well. Those who were left out of the focus groups were not as serious as those who were in the focus groups. The relaxed attitude could be attributed to a core system of beliefs that was created by incentives and education. Yet incentives had a greater impact on this core system of beliefs. Secondly, the focus groups have had a greater amount of knowledge about the program than those who did not come in the focus groups. They were psychologically prepared for it all. They knew what was in store for them. Thirdly the probability of success has a greater appeal than any other variable on the participants in the focus groups. Even if success were not defined clearly, it would not matter to them because there were indisputable incentives that correlated positively with achievement. Fourthly, kids tend to rate involvement as a paradigm shift in behaviour and therefore there is a corresponding reward attached to such planned behaviour. Finally, attitudes are constantly influenced by other variables which might not be as obvious as the known variables. REFERENCES 1. Ajzen, Icek and Manstead, Anthony (1988), Attitudes, Personality and Behaviour (Mapping Social Psychology), Buckingham, Open University Press. 2. Burbank, Patricia M, (2001), Promoting Exercise and Behaviour Change in Older Adults: Interventions with the Trranstheoretical Model, New York, Springer Publishing Company. 3. Eagly, Alice H and Chaiken, Shelly (1997), Psychology of Attitudes, Florida, Harcourt Publishers. 4. Feinstein, David; Eden, Donna; Craig, Gary; Pert, Candace and Bowen, Mike (2005), The Promise of Energy Psychology: Revolutionary Tools for Dramatic Personal Change, London, Penguin Books Ltd. 5. Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), (2005), Youth: Choices and Change, Washington DC, PAHO. 6. Phye, Gary D; Robinson, Daniel H and Levin, Joel (Editors), (2005), Empirical Methods for Evaluating Educational Interventions, London, Elsevier Academic Press. 7. Read More