Determinants of Addictive Behaviours - Essay Example

Presented for MSc Psychology September, Bangor Thesis Personality, Psychopathology and Emotional Regulation: Determinants of Addictive Behaviours Introduction The issue of addictive behaviours has proved to be one of the most complicated and hard-to-solve problems that humanity faces. It is both broad and open ended; even when narrowing the focus down to substance abuse and misuse of alcohol in particular, the subject still remains huge. In spite of the massive body of knowledge that has been gathered on the topic of addiction (both psychological and physical), addictive behaviours are, still, a broad and misunderstood area of research, with many aspects of the topic still unexplored, and many specific areas becoming the primary focus of research while others remain largely overlooked. Addiction has many faces, reflected in numerous types of addictive behaviours. Some addictive behaviours include chemicals’ abuse (heroin, alcohol etc.), gambling, sex, shopping, work addiction, eating disorders and others (Engs, 1987). In point of fact, all individuals have a certain level of risk for addiction, though little information regarding the specifics of these risks has been compiled or even identified. It is to that end that this study has been designed: an investigation of addiction and its impacts on human personality, psychopathology, and emotional regulation, and how these elements determine addictive behaviours. The introduction provides a brief into the background of the subject, the associated theories, and the history of the subject, followed an explanation of the rationale behind the study and hypotheses that the study investigates. In so doing, the subject matter will be made clear, allowing for an understanding of the paradigm used in interpreting not only what the outcome of various types of addiction is, but also allowing for a gain in the understanding of the decision-making that must be utilized in order to identify associated risks for specific individuals. Without knowledge of the risk levels to specific individuals, it is impossible to clearly identify the specific interventions that are necessary should the individuals fall into addiction. Background Numerous theories have been developed to explain aetiology and influential factors responsible for development of addictive disorders . However, researchers find it difficult to reach consensus on the factors that cause and enhance the risk of addictive behaviours and substance abuse in particular (Engs, 1987). When looking at the misuse or abuse of any substance, there have been several different aspects identified as influential in increasing a person’s individual level of risk, relating either to the personal associated characteristics of the individual or the exogenous cultural factors and processes associated with the lifestyle of the individual (Bahrke, 2012). In many instances, the risk levels for alcohol abuse or any other type of addictive behaviour for the specific individual, regardless of age or gender, have been found to increase as a result of increased stress levels; certain attitudes, such as a win at all costs, or a win no matter what the cost attitude; an increased drive towards the accomplishment of a given goal or task; the necessity to escape from reality as a result of stressful life, work and communication conditions; increased levels of hostility; high body images; those of either extremely high levels of intelligence or extremely low levels of intelligence; individuals with known psychological issues or mental illnesses; those who have experienced addiction issues in the past; and those with poor familial settings or familial settings inconsistent with the image of the nuclear family (Bahrke, 2012; Walters, 2014; Sharma & Lal, 2011; Flory et al, 2009; Modric, Zenic & Sekulic, 2011; Garland, Pettus-Davis & Howard, 2013; Cooper, et al, 2014; To et al, 2014; Sariaslan, et al, 2013; Sekulic, et al 2014 (a); Sekulic, et al, 2014 (b); Cavar, Sekulic & Culjak 2012; Hemphaolao & Hodgins, 2014). The combination of these, and other personal risk factors and associated cultural factors works to affect all individuals differently, especially when combined with various socioeconomic factors such as level of education, type of job, income, location of residence, etc., setting a personal risk level for each specific individual. In spite of the differences associated with this given potentiality for addiction, abuse or misuse that is held by each individual, the broad components themselves may be reviewed, offering a manner of measuring specific aspects of a person’s life that may be quantified for the purposes of risk identification. This quantification of associated risk factors may assist not only in the identification of varied likelihoods for addictive behaviours, but may also assist in the determination of the effects of various types of addictions on the personality degeneration of the individual, the psychopathology or the individual, and their associated emotional regulation deficits. Theories There are many theories that may be utilized as a means of working to gain a better understanding of the overall and associated means of risk identification in the individual, or that may be utilized in working to quantify the different risks of addictive behaviours in the individual and their impact on personality. These theories have to do with the determination of an individual’s specific personality, the psychopathology of the individual, and the emotional regulation and deregulation of the individual; when utilized individually they simply provide insight into the basic characteristics of the individual under investigation; but when combined, these theories can serve as a base sounding board for the identification of associated risk factors in the individuals themselves. This is especially true when taking into account the conceptualization that all individuals are driven by similar base characteristics in their addictions and in recognizing that each individual has their own associated risk levels for succumbing to a certain type of addiction (either psychological or physical). L.L. Thurstone was one of the first individuals to identify the five different base personality characteristics that may be utilized to offer up a “conversational description” of a person (Goldberg, 1990, p. 1216). Though there were originally over 18,000 different stable characteristics identified as a means of describing an individual, these were categorized, charted, and correlated to such a degree that they could be shrunk to a base five, identifying the primary common denominators that could be utilized as a means of personality description These “big five” are still utilized in personality description today (Goldberg, 1990, p. 1216). Neuroticism vs. anxiety, aggression vs. social desirability, impulsive sensation seeking, sociability, and activity are the five big traits, all of which may be measured through the use of the ZKPQ, or Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire, giving the researcher a clear idea of what characteristics the individual leans primarily towards and, in conjunction with reports on the individual’s behaviours and habits (e.g. alcohol habits or eating behaviours), can offer a means of comparison to the personal associated risk factor and the different ways in which the individual is affected (Zuckerman, 2002). An alternative to the five factor model is the use of dimensions of personal pathology, offering a clearer Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) classification of personality disorders and personalities themselves than is afforded through the application of the five factor model previously described (Shelder & Westen, 2004). The personal pathology of the individual may be determined through the utilization of the SWAP-200, or Shelder-Westen Assessment Procedure, a 200-question questionnaire designed to translate the personality of the individual into quantifiable data (Shelder & Westen, 2004). In working to combine the two different methodologies that work to take the theory of personality and make it more concrete, it is possible to capture the complexity of personality syndromes without omitting clinical constructs, providing a means of working to ensure that the individual’s full risk assessment profile is generated (Shelder & Westen, 2004; Zuckerman, 2002). These, in combination with the cognitive behavioural theories associated with emotional regulation and deregulation, work to provide the foundation for the creation of the individual risk level assessments for the individual. The concept of emotional deregulation is applied to individuals who are unable to maintain the appropriate emotion acceptance strategies, who are unable to stay in control of their emotions, or those who are experiencing behavioural issues associated with the inability to control or regulate their emotional reactions (Patterson, 2013). In fact, different types of addictive behaviours are considered to be the symptoms of emotional deregulations (Macklem, 2008). Without these different associated theories it would be impossible to create the individual scale of risk associated with each individual and therefore would be impossible to effectively quantify their associated degeneration of personality, psychopathology, or emotional regulation that may arise as a result of addiction (e.g. substance abuse). These different theories assist not only in the creation of the risk level of the individual but also serve as a means to quantify the associated degeneration that arises as a result of the addictive behaviour itself, providing both the control and the measurement of the loss of control for the subjects themselves. History Addiction – regardless of its kind – roots back in childhood and nurture peculiarities as it is stated in psychoanalysis. It can be harmless at the beginning and becomes more dangerous with the continuous repetition of certain behaviour patterns that gradually turn into addictive behaviours that tend to overtake control on an individual. For instance, it has been widely accepted that “moderate alcohol use is normal”, but in relatively recent history doctors and researchers have identified excessive alcohol consumption as a negative behaviour, one associated with various ill health effects and other associated problems (Alcohol Abuse and Dependence, 2014). Though there is not a clear record of the first organization to start investigating the question of alcohol abuse and misuse, there are organizations that have been devoted to the study thereof since the 1950s, with concerns spreading back well before the implementation of prohibition within the United States (Mitchell, 2014; Alcohol Research Group, 2014). The term ‘addiction’ in its wider meaning was initially associated with pharmacology referring to the normal dose of medicine necessary to avoid abstinence symptoms. However, the focus has shifted to define the wider set of psychopathological behaviours. In spite of these concerns and considerations, there has yet to be a study that looks at how males and females are affected by addictions and particularly alcohol misuse, though perhaps the closest was the study published in 2002 by George E. Vaillant, started in 1940 and following 724 males, 268 of who were Harvard students, and tracking their alcoholic use and abuse throughout the next sixty years, or until the death of the subject, whichever came first. While the study itself worked to identify some of the associated effects on males, it was not concerned with the same specifics and was not concerned with both genders, as is the current study. Rationale The rationalization behind this study is simple. The vast majority of studies that are completed regarding addictive behaviours and particularly substance abuse do not reflect upon the specifics of the individual, looking instead at specific and clear generalizations. For instance, one study may show that high performance athletes who have completed college are less likely to abuse or misuse such substances than those high performance athletes who have not completed college, while another study may argue that homeless children have a greater likelihood of consuming and abusing alcohol than those who have stable home environments. While these studies would offer up a basic, and what some might argue as obvious, truth regarding the misuse of alcohol, they fail to look at the larger picture associated with alcohol misuse and its effects. This study that has been designed for the specific purpose of looking at the totality of the effects of substance misuse on the personality of the individual, based on their associated personal level of risk for misuse and their initial personality traits. In so doing, it will be possible to not only generate one of the only studies to look at both the effects of addiction on males and females, but to look at potential associated symptomologies and their similarities for the purposes of working to identify the most effective means of intervention and the associated effects that the misuse may have on each of the different personality types presented by the individuals in the study itself. Hypotheses The following hypotheses have been identified for the completion of this study: It is hypothesized that ImpSS, N-A, and A-H correlate positively with DAPP, CERQ, and DERS items. It is hypothesized that ImpSS, N-A, and A-H correlates positively with SPQ items. It is hypothesized that impulsivity, anxiety, and aggression had high correlations with ImpSS, N-A, emotional dysregulation, social avoidance, self-harm and suspiciousness. It is hypothesized that the pathways identified through cluster analysis will be similar to those identified through factor analysis. It is hypothesized that all individuals have equal levels of risk to addiction. Summary Substance abuse and misuse as well as addiction in general are a highly popular subject, though they are often lopsided in practice and research. Though there has been a vast amount of knowledge amassed on the subject, it is clear that there is still much to be done and much to be learned within this field of inquiry. This study has been designed for the purposes of working to increase the body of knowledge associated with this matter while working at the same time to fill some of the gaps currently existing. It is hoped that, through looking at individuals of both genders through the lens of personality psychopathology it will be possible to gain clearer insight into the different associated concerns regarding not only substance abuse and addictive behaviours in general, but also alcohol abuse and misuse in particular. Having dealt with the introductory bit of the study, the next chapter presents an in depth review of the methodology used in its entirety. Methodology The purpose of this study is to investigate different types of addiction including substance misuse and its effects on gradual personality degeneration, psychopathology, and emotional regulation deficits among males and females. Though it is understood, to a degree that all individuals are at a level of risk of addictions of various origins and substance abuse, little information regarding the specifics of these risks has yet to be compiled, and much still must be done in order to identify the more specific aspects associated with the risks of such addictions on an individual basis. In order to better understand this area of influence, a study must have a specifically designed approach for identifying the associated matter in question. This method of answering questions associated with a given practice or problem is referred to the methodology (Dawson, 2002). The methodology seeks to find answers associated with the study questions that have been generated for the purposes of answering and identifying the questions associated with the study itself. The four purposes that are set forth for this chapter are: (1) to provide a description of the research methodology that will be utilized for the completion of the study, (2) to explain the sample selection process being utilized for the completion of the study, (3) to identify and describe the process being utilized in the questionnaire design and collection of data, and (4) to provide a clear explanation of the process utilized for data analysis in order for the researcher to obtain results from the gathered data. Ethical Approval The research reported here complies with the BPS ethical guidelines; it was reviewed and approved by the School of Psychology Ethics Committee. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, who were aware of their right to withdraw from the study without penalty (despite that no participants withdrew); they were debriefed at the end of the procedure and their questions were answered by the researcher. Personal information that could identify individuals was not recorded on the study materials. Data was kept on a password-protected computer in a locked office. Consent forms and information sheets given to participants are presented in the Appendix section. Participants In quantitative research, the question always arises as to whether or not the sample size selected truly has an influence on the quality and type of data being gathered, especially given the fact that the purpose of the data is to explore the topic in a manner that is not only more in depth, but in a way that allows the researcher to more fully explore the questions of the human psyche (Cleary, Horsfall, & Hayter, 2014). Though it is almost always true that the larger the sample size, the more representative the results, a small sample size may be, at times, equally effective, as the variances within the sample size itself work to primarily affect the generalizability of the research and the transferability of the information obtained to a wider subject (Griffith, 2013). Given the amount of data analysis, the amount of information obtained, and the type of information required from individuals within quantitative studies, however, the majority of the sample populations tend to be smaller, as this works to aid the researcher in the scrutiny of the data at hand (Griffith, 2013). In addition, it is important to note that most quantitative studies work to identify with certain cultural components, furthering the subjective nature of the responses of participants and providing a type of pre-existing bias for the data gathered (Marshall et al, 2013). In order to gather the necessary information for the completion of this study, and in light of these various factors, a group of undergraduate students were selected from the psychology department, using the SONA website (a resource used to recruit psychology students for study participation). Individuals chosen for participation were required to have had three credits £6 at minimum, been a part of the psychology department at the time of the study, and they must have agreed to participate in the study being completed and given their informed consent. Of those who were requested to participate, 168 students agreed to participate in the completion of the provided questionnaires. Any individual who did not complete all six questionnaires in full was excluded from the total and overall sample size; this ended up requiring the removal of only one individual’s results from the study’s completion. Eventually, one participant was removed as a result of a failure to complete the DAPP-BQ, leaving a total of 167 participants who fulfilled all the requirements of the study and who submitted all of the requested data. Of these 167 students, 135 students were female and 32 were male. All 167 students completed all six questionnaires in full. This use of purposive sampling was selected not only as a means of working to meet the needs of the study itself, but also as a result of the fact that the individuals within the psychology department were available, working to ensure that the study itself could be completed within the set time frame (Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collector’s Field Guide, 2012). Instruments The questionnaires utilized within this research project serve to address two different purposes. The first purpose is to identify and examine the perceptions of the individuals in order to obtain a clearer understanding of the question of substance misuse; the second purpose was to collect the additional data needed in order to see the effects of substance abuse on the male and female populations, thereby ensuring that the totality of the research project is addressed. To this end, six different questionnaires were utilized: CERQ, the cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire designed by Nadia Garnefski and Vivian Kraaij for the purposes of measuring the “cognitive coping strategies” of the individual, whether hypothetical or factual (Kushner at al, 2014); DAPP-BQ, a dimensional assessment of personality pathology used to identify potential personality disorders and identify how they relate to the components specifically identified and detailed in the DSM-IV (Kushner et al, 2011); Shorter Promis Questionnaire used for the purposes of identifying and describing associated addictions within a given sample population (Pallanti, Bernardi, & Quercioli, 2006); DERS, a difficulties in emotional regulation scale that allows individuals to identify how often a given feeling occurs for them in relation to a specific concept or problem (Gratz & Roemer, 2004); ZKPQ, or Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire, designed for the purposes of measuring personality traits within individuals through the use of 99 different true and false questions with five different subscales and the ability to detect whether or not the individual is paying attention to the questions being asked (Zuckerman et al, 1993); Demographics Questionnaire form which allowed the researcher to have information on the participant’s age, gender, the year of university study that they were in, and how old the individuals were when they consumed their first alcoholic beverage. The CERQ is a “self-report questionnaire” which consists of a total of thirty six questions designed to measure a total of nine different types of coping strategies (Garnefski & Kraaij, 2014). The test is utilized not only to identify the coping strategies utilized by each individual and offer a comparison to the norm baselines for their particular demographics, it also serves as a means of presenting the researcher with the opportunity to investigate the different relationships that are present between the coping strategies that are selected, the different personality variables of the study participant, their psychopathology, and other associated areas of interest (Garnefski & Kraaij, 2014). The DAPP-BQ, on the other hand, works to identify the different trait components of the personality of the individual, which may then be correlated to potential personality disorders as defined by the DSM-IV (Kushner et al, 2011). The researcher suggests that this 290 question test allows for the identification of the different traits themselves in order to provide the researcher with a better idea as to the underlying personality structure of the individual. The SPQ, or shorter PROMIS Questionnaire, consists of 160 different questions designed to measure the level of addictive tendency on the part of the subject in sixteen different behavioural areas. The test does not indicate that the individual has a particular issue with addiction in that area, but rather that the individual has a greater likelihood of becoming addicted to a particular addictive action in an area where they rank the highest. The DERS, or Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale, consists of thirty six different questions in which the respondent indicates how often they agree with the particular statement (Gratz & Roemer, 2004). This test requires each individual to rank each statement on a scale of 1-5 with one indicating that they “almost never” feel that way and five meaning that they “almost always” feel that way (Gratz & Roemer, 2004). The DERS gives insight into the ability of the participant to regulate certain emotions and how those emotions cause those individuals to react in a particular pattern when certain moods set upon them (Gratz & Roemer, 2004). The ZKPQ, developed for the purpose of defining the basic factors of an individual’s temperament or personality, consists of 99 different questions that require a “true” or “false” reply and grades each of these different answers on five different subscales for the purposes of determining the sociability levels, neuroticism-anxiety levels, impulsive sensation seeking levels, aggression hostility levels, and activity levels of the given participant (Zuckerman et al, 1993). The demographics form, the final form completed by study participants, simply serves as a means of providing the researcher with the basic information that they need in order to be able to clearly divide the study participants up into different groups. This information not only works to ensure that the researcher is able to clearly differentiate between different participant groupings, it also serves as a means of affording the researcher the ability to more effectively analyze the gathered data in the context set forth by the study itself. The combination of each of these different questionnaires served not only as a means to obtain the most information from the sample population, but also worked to ensure that all possible questions regarding the different types of substances that could be misused were answered to the fullest extent, despite some questionnaires appearing overly long. Given the smaller sample size being utilized, it was determined that it would be more effective to gain the largest sample body of data possible in order to work to further this area of research. Procedure for Data Collection A quantitative research methodology was selected for the completion of this study. This was based on the fact that respondents to the questions being asked would be providing subjective answers, answers based on their own personal opinions and perspectives, providing the information that will be necessary in order to understand this particular aspect of social life (Patton & Cochran, 2002). It was determined that in order to gain a clearer understanding of the true effects of substance misuse within the given population, it would be necessary to take a sampling of the base population and analyze the totality of the responses, working to answer the given question through the use of a predefined set of procedures and questionnaires for the purposes of collecting evidence, producing findings, and suggesting how those findings could be applicable outside the boundaries of the given study question, meaning that they will be able to assist in furthering the current body of research on substance abuse and misuse (Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collector’s Field Guide, 2012). The first step in the data collection process was the completion of the literature review, as presented in the previous chapter. This allowed for the successful discussion of published information in the specific subject area, thereby ensuring that a full overview of the subject matter was provided and thereby decreasing the likelihood that any assumptions could be made regarding current or past research into the given subject matter (Literature Reviews, 2013). The literature review was created through the analysis of papers, journals, reports, and academic books, accessed through the academic library at the school and from information available via the internet (Literature Reviews, 2013). One of the more common types of data collection methods utilized within quantitative research is questionnaire (Cleary, Horsfall & Hayter, 2014). To issue out questionnaires, the second step in the data collection process was to obtain the necessary consent forms from the targeted participants and then provide them with the questionnaires, to be completed in bulk and returned to the researcher within a pre-stated deadline. As the questionnaires selected were all based on the personal perspectives and personal experiences of the individual participants, and as all of the questionnaires selected were those that could be completed by the individual with no need for proctoring on the part of the researcher, it was determined acceptable to simply pass out all seven of the questionnaires in one complete packet to each study participant in a quiet testing room, in groups of one to 10 and in the presence of two researchers with the admonition that they were to be completed in full and returned in full, not piecemeal, to the researcher by a set date. Individuals who did not provide their questionnaire packets to the researcher by this date would not have their data utilized within the study, and any questionnaire packets that were returned incomplete would not be utilized within the study either. Allowing participants leave with the forms would allow them complete the forms on their own, with greater accuracy since they were thus allowed more filling time. Plan of Analysis The analysis of information as presented within the literature review is simplified, merely offering a correlation of the data found on the given subject, though the questionnaire data may be processed through a more rigorous base statistical analysis, thereby working to ensure that the most information possible may be gathered from the abundance of data obtained (Taylor-Powell & Renner, 2003). This practice not only works to ensure that the data will be applicable to a larger worldview, it ensures that the research data is clear and easy to review and that the experiment’s potential to be repeated is present (Taylor-Powell & Renner, 2003). The analysis process was divided into two: descriptive and inferential stages. Descriptive statistics comprised means and standard deviations of the variables. Inferential analysis comprised correlation analysis, cluster analysis, factor analysis and regression analysis respectively. These procedures were thus arranged since each preceding step partly cleared the approach towards the next, weaving a web of interdependence among them. Summary Through the appropriate application of the six different questionnaires to the 167 prticipants, gain insight into substance misuse within the college population and its effects on gradual personality degeneration, psychopathology, and the different potential emotional regulation deficits that may be present among these male and female college students. The analysis lays ground for the discussion thereafter. References: Arg.org. (2014). Alcohol Research Group: About Us: History. Retrieved from http://arg.org/about_us/history.php (Accessed 3rd July, 2014). Bahrke, M. S. (2012). Performance-enhancing substance misuse in sport: risk factors and considerations for success and failure in intervention programs. 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