The Evaluation of Social Psychological Theories - Essay Example

The evaluation of social psychological theories in order to explain participation in the virtual world and contribution to online social interactionsThe erosion of culture, destruction of diversity and disappearance of national values, norms, habits and traditions have resulted in the emergence of a new social dispensation in the 20th century that is characterised by alienation of individuals from others and a clash of communication processes (Agger, 2004 and Castells, 2010). This anomaly has impacted on people in different ways since they now find themselves alienated from others and the aspect of connectedness has been eroded (Oswell, 2006). According to Shirky (2010) and Castells (2010), the destruction of institutions such as churches, unions, and associations has resulted in disappearance of relationships since these played a pivotal role in socialisation of individuals. These institutions also helped in identity creation among individuals given that people belong to different social groups in their respective communities. The disintegration of the traditional family unit has also contributed to the establishment of a culture of individualism where people are mainly concerned with self centred ideals. However, this culture has been redefined by the technological revolution that emerged in the 21st century which significantly played a role in solving the problems that were generated during the previous era that was mainly characterised by capitalism and individualism. For instance, the advent of new information and communication technology such as the internet has helped to build new relations and connections through the creation of the virtual world. The internet has enabled people from different parts of the world to interact regardless of the physical barriers such as boundaries and distance that may exist between them. Castells (2010) and Fuchs (2008) state that technology has removed physical boundaries among people and this has resulted in the disappearance of societies that are characterised by shared values experiences as well as interests. The virtual world or cyberspace represents the collapse of traditional societies since people are now capable of communicating with any person from other different parts of the world (Oswell, 2006). Shirky (2010) and Friedman (2007) also suggest that the period that is characterised by technological determinism has provided a platform where people from different corners of the world can freely interact and this makes it possible to minimise the aspects of isolation among people since they can communicate through different social networks. The borderless communication has significantly helped in reshaping the world since people can get together with each other regardless of the distance that exists between them. Haythornthwaite (2007) suggests that this cyberspace has enabled individuals to form multiple identities where their behaviour is unregulated and they often misrepresent themselves and this has resulted in the decline of social aspects such as shared attitudes, values and relationships. McKenna (2007) however takes into consideration Higgins’ self discrepancy theory (1987) which attempts to distinguish between the actual, ideal and ought selves of a person. He suggests that the virtual world is a place individuals are in a position to experiment with these different versions of their selves. This helps them to express themselves while at the same time improving the concept self. Virtual structures often facilitate self-expression and self-presentation given that they provide unique features such as anonymity and invisibility. People are willing to disclose personal and intimate information about themselves as a result of the psychological concept of stranger on the train and they are likely to be in a position to have trust in people they do not know other than their relatives (Witty & Joinson, 2009). McKenna (2007) also state that the cyberspace helps people to concentrate on aspects such as inner selves and they get the chance to freely express themselves since they are not in direct contact with the people they are communicating with. Jung’s personality theory illustrates that both extrovert and introvert behaviours exist concurrently within the same personality but whilst one may be dominant, the other remains hidden or undeveloped. The virtual world can help self centred individuals to develop the extroverted aspect of their personality. For those people with social excitement who are unable to reconcile the three different selves of their self concept, the cyberspace can act as the only channel of communication and connection among different people (Amichai-Hamburger, 2007). The virtual world allows people to disclose themselves to strangers and it often helps to withdraw us from the real world. According to Heim (1999), people often face the risk of disappearing physical closeness and mutual interdependence as a result of online identity that is created through the use of social networks. In order to counter this development, various studies suggest that virtual communities represent an environment that is characterised by interaction where collaboration, intensive knowledge discovery and sharing are increasingly enhanced (Yang & Chen, Casalo, Flavian & Guinaliu, 2010). Engagement among people in cyberspace mainly promotes interpersonal connectivity. There are many factors that may influence people to participate in the virtual world but it can be seen that in each case these individuals are motivated by personal values such as the need to be recognised by other individuals (Oreg & Nov, 2008). Schwartz’s theory of human values (1992) suggests ten personal values namely: power, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, achievement, universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity and security. They provide social justification for different choices and behaviours that are associated with taking part in the cyberspace. Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory (1985) state two types of values that form the motivational goals and theses are extrinsic motivators like self-development, self-discovery and enhancement of self-esteem mainly focus on external factors like rewards and they are related to the achievement of self-interest benefits. On the other hand, intrinsic motivators like altruism, entertainment and reciprocity put emphasis on internal satisfaction and lead to participation on an unconditional basis. Dholakia, Bagozzi & Klein Pearo (2004) make a distinction between self-referent values that include one’s personal self and the achievement of personal future goals and group-referent values are goals that are pursued in reference to other members of the group. Heckhausen and Kuhl’s goal theory (1985) states the instrumental value as the major source of motivation for participation in the virtual world and also suggest that motivational goals might be pursued for intrinsic or extrinsic interests on the basis of the degree of instrumentality of the motivation. The need to establish reputation and to get acceptance as well as approval from other members of the society and the need to gain self esteem and social status is one of the greatest motivators that compel people to participate in the virtual world (Oreg & Nov, 2008). The need for self-development and self-discovery through learning from other people can also be regarded as extrinsic, instrumental motivation that is driven by internal needs for personal growth and self-actualization. The least instrumental motivator driven by intrinsic values is related to the aspect of helping other members in the virtual world. Chiou, Wang, Shih & Fan (2011) and Wang & Wang (2008) argue that the existence of virtual communities is specifically based on the altruistic motivation instead of previously mentioned instrumental motivators. Wright & Li (2011) basing on Subrahmanyam, Smahel and Greenfield’s co-construction theory (2006) state that participants in the virtual world are psychologically connected to their real worlds. They may just generalize their attitude beyond their face-to-face interaction by taking into account their social behaviour in the virtual world as an extension of their usual social dispositions. Chiou, Wang, Shih & Fan (2011), Wang & Wang (2008) and Wright & Li (2011) all agree that positive social role models are more likely to continue evolving in the virtual world due to the aspect of reciprocity of positive social interaction with other members where it can be seen that these members share information, knowledge and support. Kim, Song & Jones (2011) and Chiu, Hsu & Wang (2006) take into consideration Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory (1986) to illustrate the fact that positive reinforcement is attributed to pro social behaviours in the virtual world. Bandura’s theory suggests that human behaviour is shaped and controlled by environmental factors and personal values such as personal cognition like individual needs and expectations and beliefs. This entails that behaviour is determined by a process that is continuous and that is characterised by reciprocation among the member and it is also characterised by self-regulatory mechanisms (Bandura, 1991). Since behaviour is primarily influenced by environmental factors and individual psychological processes, it can be seen that reciprocation in the virtual world can represent a powerful force that is able to influence such behaviour. Casalo, Flavian & Guinaliu (2010) suggest that taking part in the virtual world is not only determined by altruistic motivations but by the level of satisfaction by the members as well as the functionality of the virtual groups they are part of since this helps to illustrate the extent to which their needs are satisfied. Oliver’s expectation-disconfirmation theory (1980) posits to the effect that people show initial expectations of the cyberspace and develop different perceptions with regards to their functionality. These perceptions are often compared to the people’s expectations where satisfaction is finally derived from the extent to which the expectations are achieved (Casalo, Flavian & Guinaliu, 2010). Dholakia, Bagozzi & Klein Pearo (2004) state that identification not satisfaction in a certain virtual community is the most important motivator that influences people to participate in the virtual world although they agree that that identification with the group is also obtained from its functionality. Tajfel and Turner’s social identity theory (1979) suggests that self-identity is comprised of both personal and group aspects that include cognitive, affective and evaluative components (Watt, Lea & Spears, 2002). Social identity entails that there is a sense of emotional involvement within a certain group and this attachment can be described as affective commitment. According to this theory, social identity is also comprised of aspects such as self worth evaluation where it can be seen that this aspect is determined by the individual’s collective self esteem (Dholakia, Bagozzi & Klein Pearo, 2004). Turner’s self-categorization theory (1987) further explains this view by showing how behaviour in the group can be explained in the context of change in self-perception where a person is perceived a unique person to a situation where a person is perceived a member of the group. The self-categorization theory states that this shift which is also known as depersonalization is the basic process that lies beneath group behaviour such as cooperation, altruism, empathy, collective action or group cohesion. In depersonalized circumstances, people often adopt group norms where they establish similarities with other group members in ingroup members while they establish dissimilarities with non-members in outgroup members, and they are often stereotyped in terms of the qualities of the group (Watt, Lea & Spears, 2002). The aspect of one’s self in relation to the group helps in building identity which is one of the greatest motivators that influence people to participate in the virtual world. Wodzicki, Schwammlein, Cress & Kimmerle (2011) highlight the significance of depersonalization and they utilise the Social Identity model of Depersonalization Effects (SIDE) to explain participation as well as pro social behaviour in virtual world. The concept of de-individuation has also been used to explain the anti-normative collective behaviour and has been described as a process that creates reduced personal and social responsibility which often results in violent and irrational behaviour (Watt, Lea &Spears, 2002). According to the theory of de-individuation, the reduced social behaviour in the virtual world often results in reduced self-consciousness in the virtual world and also weakens aspects related to social control that can lead to anti-social behaviours. The theory can successfully be used as a measure to account for bad and aggressive behaviours that might be displayed in the virtual world. However the SIDE model states that the reduced social values provided in the virtual world is more likely to promote socially normative behaviour in groups rather than undermining it (Cress & Kimmerle, 2011). The theory explains the effects of depersonalization with regards to the aspect of social identity and self-categorization theories and makes a distinction between depersonalization and de-individuation. While de-individuation is the loss of self, depersonalization defines the self in terms of the in group. In a salient group, people often introduce the concept of self that is often shared by other members in the in group virtual world community. Under depersonalized situations, people who possess visible features in the group with regards to their identity often adhere to norms that are shared in the group and they adopt certain normative behaviour. The SIDE model also suggests that the reduced perceptions of the self and other members as a result of anonymity increases group identification and this in turn increases typical group behaviour. According to SIDE, the identification within the ingroup is an increasingly important aspect that promotes social normative behaviour in the virtual world (Wodzicki, Schwammlein, Cress & Kimmerle, 2011; Watt, Lea & Spears, 2002). Under anonymous conditions, online members often conform to their identity if the in-group members are salient. However, Watt, Lea & Spears (2002) posit to the effect that identity and visibility of others under anonymous conditions may increase self-categorization which also increases group attraction. Visibility in this case can complement anonymity and by providing people with solutions for being able to identify with their respective virtual group and this can intensify effects of depersonalization discussed above. It can be observed that a virtual world is capable of reconfiguring the society as well as its connectivity not only for its betterment by complementing social interaction among people and providing individuals with a platform to get close to each other regardless of physical boundaries to highlight a collective interest or to share some of their their experiences, but can also negatively impact on people through misrepresentation of the self and depriving other people in real-world communities to face reality. Whilst some people argue that the virtual world helps people to have multiple identities, leads to alienation, as well as to help people to escape from the primary world, it can be seen that virtual communities often help in creating an environment that is complementary to social interaction in the offline world there are many factors that motivate people to participate in the virtual world there are various social psychological theories that can be used to explain these motivations. Word count: 2429 References Agger, B. (2004). The virtual self: a contemporary sociology. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Amichai-Hamburger, Y. (2007). Personality, individual differences and Internet use.In A. Joinson, K. McKenna, T. Postmes & UD. Reips (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of Internet psychology (pp.187-204). Oxford: Oxford University Press B. Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation.Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 50 (1991), 248-287. 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