Goal Setting Effects in Elite and Nonelite Boxers by OBrien, Mellalieu, and Hanton - Article Example

SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY I. INTRODUCTION Athletes face great challenges as they pursuit excellence in their chosen field of sports. The hurdles they face include hours of training, injuries, stress, anxiety of the competition and distress in defeat (Vallerand, 1999). Being such, scholars have been interested in understanding and further clarifying the underlying psychology and cognitive skills that drives and compels athletes in their quest for excellence in sports (Vallerand, 1999; Biddle, 1999). In response to this surging interest, this paper will try to provide an analysis of an important article pertinent to this subject matter. The article that will be evaluated is Goal Setting Effects in Elite and Nonelite Boxers by M. O’Brien, S. Mellalieu and S. Hanton and published in the Journal of Applied Sports Psychology. II. Goal Setting Effects in Elite and Nonelite Boxers: AN ANALYSIS In a brief overview, the article Goal Setting Effects in Elite and Nonelite Boxers by O’Brien et al (2009) deals with the question how goal-setting affect or influence elite and nonelite athletes in combat sports like boxing. Addressing this particular question, it has utilised the goal-setting model as developed by Burton et al (2001). It is now in this context that a more in depth look at the article will be carried out. II A. A LOOK INTO THE BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS There are three purposes that underlie the research. These are: the primary purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a goal-setting intervention program upon elite and nonelite boxers selected components of performance behaviors and their indirect psychological responses (O’Brien, 2009). It further holds that it aims to use the contemporary goal –setting model as developed by Burton et al (2001) and that it will extend the application of the said model to multiple baseline with focus on self-generated components of both the elite and nonelite boxers’ targeted and nontargeted performance behaviours over the duration of a competitive season; and (b) boxers indirect psychological responses to the goal program in the form of competitive anxiety and self confidence(O’Brien,2009). The second objective is to identify the underlying mechanisms of goal programs using qualitative analysis and the examination of the retention and outcome effects of the program. This goal is significant since according to the authors no research prior to this one has been done to look into the effects of goal setting to one-on-one combat sports like boxing (O’Brien, 2009). The third aim is to affirm a previous study that “elite boxers would experience greater improvements in performance behaviours as compared to the none elite boxers” (O’Brien,2009). These aims are based on the theoretical suppositions that: 1) despite the growing interest in goal setting in sports psychology very few literature are available compared with the fields of organization and management. Although this does not the fact that there are already existing studies regarding this matter in sport psychology and the studies have provided knowledge based, but, reality is it is still not enough. 2) There is a need to examine goal setting designs or models to determine its actual effectiveness. 3) There is also a need to understand the influence of skill level to goal setting. 4. There is the absence of studies in sports psychology regarding follow-up assessment of retention effects after the program. Indeed, the rationale provided for the study present a necessity for the research. Both the aims and the theoretical suppositions highlight the urgency of clarification needed to further understand the connection among goal- setting, certain cognitive and somatic skills and athletic performance. It has been noted that no conceptual analysis of goal setting in sports psychology has been presented in the article. The authors should have provided a definition of the concept that may guide the readers as to how the authors are using the said concept. Furthermore, the justification for choosing the goal-setting model of Burton et al (2001) in the research is not presented by the authors. A brief description of the model being tested and the rationale for the choice should have been given by the authors. Moreover, the agents-means-ends and different belief systems (capacity beliefs, strategic beliefs and control beliefs) may have been used as an alternative theory in explaining the connection among goal-setting, cognitive skills and skills performance (Biddle, 1999). This is claimed on the premise that this particular theory intends to provide a holistic and interconnected explanation of the intricate dynamics goal, cognitive skills and athletic performance. II B. METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS: A SCRUTINY The methodology employed is qualitative study and the number of subjects that are engaged in the study is 6. Considering that it is a qualitative a study, the sample size is sufficient. Since, in a qualitative study it is basically not the large number of subjects under study but it’s the quality of the derived information and data from the subjects (Kline, 2008). In the study the 6 subjects is divided into two groups. One group is made up of 3 elite boxers while the other group is made up of 3 nonelite boxers. For point of clarification, the distinction between an elite and non-elite boxer is that an elite boxer has fought in the international level while a nonelite has fought in the national level only. Likewise, the criteria set for the demographics are: the subjects are all amateur male boxers, whose age range is between 15 to 17 and all come from United Kingdom. The results of their study show that among the elite participants there is a remarkable improvement in the performance as measured by an increase in the number of punches thrown during a fight. It has also been observed that there is a sustained increase in cognitive anxiety direction, somatic anxiety direction and self-confidence intensity during the intervention phase and even after the termination of the program among elite boxers. On the other hand, nonelite boxers have also shown improvements in performance via an increase in the number of punches thrown during a fight. It has also been shown that among the nonelite boxers, there is no change in anxiety direction or self-confidence and that there is no retention effect after the program. These results are arrived at using the following measures: Modified CSAI-2, social validation questionnaire, both an intra and inter observer procedures have been conducted to ensure reliability of behavioural performances, and that the program has been administered by a known sports psychologist in three global phases namely goal determination, goal setting and goal review. Although there are questions regarding the validity of CSAI-2 as a method which is raised by Lundqvist (2006), the use of other measures have mitigated the doubt with CSAI-2, therefore, the reliability and validity of the study remains unadulterated. These results are basically not remarkable in the sense that it merely re-affirmed what is already known (Swain & Jones, 1995 as cited in O’Brien et al, 2009). Another issue regarding the method is the used of Modified CSAI-2. Lundqvist (2006) in a study claims that although Modified CSAI-2 is normally used in the study of anxiety among athletes, some research has shown contradictory results and reviews while using this tool. With regards to the internal validity of the research, one problem is the selection history. In the demographics, there seems to be a balance among the subjects. However, other important factors that may influence the personality of the subject are not included eg. education, race and economic status. Another concern in the internal validity is selection testing. The mere fact that the two groups have different exposure in terms of levels of competition (Local vs international), it may have contributed to the difference in the result after the termination of the program. With regards to the external validity, the number of subjects in the research is not enough to generalize the results derived in the study. Although it is noted that in a qualitative study the number of subjects is not of primary importance. This part of the study could have been further improved via incorporating a conceptual analysis of the concept of goal setting, by incorporating in the demographics education, economic status, race and it is not limited only to male boxers but includes female boxers as well. Nonetheless, the methodology and results are consistent with the theoretical suppositions used in the article. II C. STRENGTHS OF THE STUDY The study has clearly presented that there is a remarkable connection between goal-setting and athletic performance. Thus, goal setting can be used as one of the factors in establishing enduring and daily motivation for athletes (Gagné et al, 2003). The efficiency of goal-setting model by Burton et al (2001) as manifested by the enhanced performance of both elite and non-elite boxers (O’Brien, 2009), affirms the validity of goal setting as one of the factors that can influence the development of both the elite and nonelite boxers (Baker et al, 2003). Furthermore, the study has shown that the non improvement of anxiety direction and self-confidence of nonelite boxers are due to attention problem. Knowledge of this situation will enable coaches to formulate strategies which may help nonelite boxers attain better athletic self-concept (Jackson et al, 2002). The validation of the Burton et al (2001) model is taken from observations performed on actual fights and trainings of boxers. Hence, the study affords an analysis that is anchored not just on theory but on the concrete context and experiences of boxers themselves as well (Landers, 1983). Thus, making the results of the study more responsive to the authentic needs of boxers in particular and athletes in general. Furthermore, the used of intra and inter observers, and by seeking the service of a sports psychologist expert, the danger of contaminating the observation and collection of data has been minimised; thus, making the results of the study more credible. This method can serve as paradigm with which other researches maybe patterned (Anderson, 2002). Finally, the introduction of global phases in goal-setting is an innovation afforded by this study to future researches in the field. II D. WEAKNESSES OF THE STUDY There are weaknesses which are noticeable in the study. These are: first, the study is confounded by the problem of selection–history and selection testing which may influence the internal validity of the study (Kline, 2008). Second, the limitation of the participants to very young male amateur boxers from United Kingdom shows that there is an intrinsic limitation in making generalizations out from the results as the number of samples cannot be claimed to be representative of boxers as a class. This become significant as the study made some generalizations regarding the results (Gelo et al, 2008). Third, the used of Modified CSAI-2 raises some doubts regarding the validity of some of the measures used in the study (Lundqvist, 2006). II E. CONCLUSION AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS TO THE FIELD The study shows that the overall improvement of both the elite and nonelite boxers in their skills performance draws attention to the fact that goal –setting patterned after the goal-setting model of Burton et al (2001) present a clear connection between goal-setting and increase athletic performance. Furthermore, it is found out that feedback plays an integral role in the development and further harnessing of self-confidence among the elite boxers. While it has also raised the fact that additional strategies can be used to improve the self confidence of nonelite boxers. These conclusions are given substantial support from the data collected and analysed. Moreover, these findings will help both the athlete and his/her coach create an environment that increases the athlete’s self-confidence via utilizing the goal-setting model of Burton et al (2001). Likewise, they can create additional strategies that will help nonelite athletes to increase their level of self-confidence as they employ the goal setting model as well. Furthermore, coaches can come up with a feedback system that will help their athletes more. In the end, it is the hope of the author that a clearer perspective and a better appreciation of the goal-setting in sports is seen as one viable means in attaining excellence in sports. REFERENCE: Anderson, A.G., Miles, A., Mahoney,C., & Robinson, P. (2002). Evaluating the effectiveness of applied sport psychology practice: Making a case for a case study approach, The Sport Psychologist, 16, pp 432 – 453. Baker, J., Horton, S., Robertson-Wilson,J.,& Wall, M. (2003). Nurturing sport expertise: Factors influencing the development of elite athlete, Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 2, 1 - 9. Biddle, S.J.H. (1999). Motivation and perception control: Tracing its development and plotting its future in exercise and sports psychology, Journal of Sports & Exercise Psychology, 21, 1 – 23. Gagné, M., Ryan, R.M., & Bargmann, K. (2003). Autonomy support and need satisfaction in the motivation and well-being of gymnasts, Journal of Applied Sports Psychology,15, 372 – 390. 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An integrative analysis of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sports, Journal of Applied Sports Psychology,11, 142 – 169. Read More