Health and Exercise Psychology - Essay Example

HEALTH AND EXERCISE PYCHOLOGY To some people, partaking daily exercises is a way of life. Thesepeople believe that exercising offers absolute psychological, physical, emotional, and social benefits. To others, the very mention of the word exercise puts them off. To them, exercising is a boring, time wasting, and tiring exercise, which people should avoid at all costs. But this school of thought has few participants today basically because more people continue to embrace the notion of exercising to keep up with healthy lifestyles. More and more gymnasiums keep sprouting up each day in our hotels, stadiums, recreational facilities, and even in our homes. In the same vein, you are likely to get different responses if you ask some 50 people to explain what exercise entails. According to Serogonian (1993), some individuals may define exercise as any form of physical exertion, from planting the garden to walking to work. Others may think that the term exercise is only reserved for energetic aerobic maneuvers or vigorous resistance training. The word exercise is used freely without qualification even in Science. But characteristically, exercise physiologists say that the content of exercises is defined around the limitations of physical fitness. These may include muscular endurance, muscular strength, flexibility, cardiopulmonary endurance, and body composition (Bennet & Murphy 1997). However, there are a number of psychological factors that impact on the participation in health related activities. According to Pat (1991), statistics from available research shows that around 50 percent of the people who engage in self-monitored exercise will often drop out of the program within the first six months. Below, I attempt to discuss some of the variables that continue to influence exercise adherence. Childhood Exercise Habits According to Pat (1991), childhood experiences often lay the groundwork for adulthood exercise habits. Available research shows that schools' exercise programs could be effective in progressing fitness levels and heightening participation in health-related activities in children. However, this opportunity that can favorably sway the patterns of exercise adherence is being missed. Students who have participated in quality physical education programmes have been able to increase levels of fitness and acquired the necessary expertise and enjoyment levels necessary to impact future patterns of adherence to the exercise programs. But it is unfortunate that most schools have failed to offer students sufficient contact hours in programmes of quality exercising. As such, the impact on future exercise behavior is not influenced (Brannon & Feist 1997). Psychological, Physical, Social, and Situational factors The initial interest in joining an exercise program is brought about by the desire to obtain health and fitness benefits. According to Pat (1991), the reasons for remaining with a particular exercise programme are not informed by the initial reasons for being involved in exercise programs. Continued involvement in a particular training programme is therefore dependent on a diversity of physical, psychological, situational, and social factors. This essay will deal with motivation as a psychological factor, but it doesn't do any harm to briefly mention the other factors. Some of the physical factors that can really influence adherence levels include the fitness levels, body composition and weight, and personal injuries. An overweight, injury-prone person is more likely to default on an exercise program than a slim, fit, and injury-free individual. Program dropout rates will also be high if the exercise program is started at very high intensities. Social and situational factors include such issues as social support and convenience. The persistence of the exercise activity is facilitated by the convenience of the exercise facilities. The support received for the person with whom the trainee relates to also persuade the trainee to continue with the exercises (Pat 1991). Motivation as a psychological factor Of all the psychological factors that come together to influence the individual's tendency to continue with an exercise program, self-motivation is perhaps the most important. According to Pat (1991), highly self-motivated individuals are always inclined to adhere to health-related activities longer than individuals who are less-motivated. Motivation shapes the attitude and interest of individuals towards physical activity. Motivation also has a role to play in building up individual's self-confidence, which brings the ability to maintain an activity program on long-term basis. According to Huitt (2001), motivation can be described as the internal condition or state that activates behavior and offer it direction. It is the want or desire that directs and energizes the goal-oriented behavior. Consequently, motivation can be defined as the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior. For all learned responses to be performed, a certain degree of motivation must be present. In other words, a learned action cannot occur unless it is duly energized. This reflects its importance in undertaking and adhering to health- related activities such as training. Exercises are learned actions and behaviors, and for individuals to actively pursue them, they must be motivated. There are some relevant motivation theories that can give weight to my subject of discussion. Below I attempt to discuss a few of them (Sheridan & Radmucher 1992). Maslow hierarchy of needs According to Huitt (2004), Maslow posited a hierarchy of needs, based on two clusters - the growth needs and the deficiency needs. Each lower need must be met before moving to the next higher level within the deficiency needs. The individual will act to remove deficiencies if they are detected in the future. The first four levels in the hierarchy includes: Physiological (Hunger, bodily comforts, thirst, etc.), Security/ safety (Out of danger), Love and belongingness (acceptance by others, affiliation), and Esteem (To achieve, to be competent, gain approval and recognition). Maslow argued that an individual is only prepared to act upon the growth needs if the deficiency needs have been satisfied. Initially, Maslow's growth need only entailed the element of self actualization. People who are self- actualized are always problem focused, incorporate an ongoing appreciation and freshness of life, have concern about personal growth, and have the ability to enjoy peak experiences. This kind of motivation always informs the long-term exercisers. Maslow later added three growth needs, namely: Cognitive (to know, understand, and explore), aesthetic (Beauty, order, and symmetry), and self-transcendence (to connect something beyond the ego and help others find their potential) (Huitt 2004; Smith 1998). Harter's Motivation theory Harter developed the white's theory on motivation. According to Biddle and Mutrie (2001), Harter conceptualized competency as multidimensional by identifying domains of competence perceptions, such as athletic and scholaristic competence. With age, these domains become more differentiated. She then related motivational orientations and perceptions of control to self perceptions of competence. She finally developed some measuring instruments for self perceptions of adequacy and for the assessment of domains of competence. According to her theory, we cannot fail to realize that people are motivated in achievement domains, where their key competencies can clearly be demonstrated. This is particularly so if the individuals are oriented in that area and view themselves as having an internal perceived locus of control (Brannon & Feist 1997). This is clearly demonstrated in those individuals who adhere to health-training activities for a long time. Their successful mastery attempts are linked with low anxiety and positive emotions. Harter's theory revealed that individuals who score highly in the perceived competence would more likely engage in physical activity. In reality, such a relationship has been found, though not strong. Definition of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation is basically motivation arising from external factors. These factors are what an individual thinks of before beginning an exercise programme. Some external rewards may be enough to motivate a person to initially enroll in a training programme. According to available information, extrinsic motivation factors are rarely sufficient in the sustenance of standard exercise regimens. As such, they should never be made the most important justification of engaging in exercises. For example, an individual can exercise on the promise that he will lose weight. Early during the exercise program, he may lose some weight by losing a substantial amount of water. But as the individual continues to train without realizing rapid weight loss, he will feel unmotivated and drop out of the exercise program (DiNardo, 2005; Smith 1998). Intrinsic (internal) motivators have the capability of producing long lasting adherence to exercise. According to DiNardo (2005), intrinsic motivators provide a viable route in enhancing exercise persistence. According to available research, individuals who maintain a workout regimen must learn to shift their focus from external motivators like losing weight to positive, intrinsic occurrences in the here and now. For example, an individual may exercise to overcome a personal challenge that each training session presents. Another individual may exercise because he finds the movements enjoyable. These are factors that come from within the individuals (Bennet & Murphy 1997). Attribution theory and its importance to motivation Human beings are able to explain anything. People have a strong desire to understand and explain what is going on around us. Attribution has always been used to refer to explanations given by individuals as to why they were successful, or why they have failed in the past. The theory of attribution tries to define how people explain things. We can use two ways in explaining why things happen. One, we can use external attribution, which assigns causality to an outside force or agent. Second, we can use internal attribution, which assigns causality to aspects within the individual. Internal attribution suggests that an individual was directly responsible for what happened (Ingledew & Handy 2004; Moran 2004). The theory is important in trying to motivate people to adhere to exercise programs. Positive attribution cannot in any way motivate people as the causes are external to the individual. As such, the individual may lack any control over them. But internal attribution suggests that individuals have control over issues affecting them, and therefore can be motivated to do something about them. Internal attribution makes individuals to change their beliefs and attitudes about themselves, thereby enabling them to attain the desired behavior (Dombeck & Wells-Moran 2008). For example, we have seen overweight people who won't try to succeed anymore in exercise programs basically because they do not believe that they can. They lack confidence in controlling the factors that makes them to be overweight. Such people often link their overweight nature to uncontrollable causes such as failure to maintain a strict feeding habit. What they don't seem to realize is that such factors are often changeable and within their control. Attribution theory is often used to help such individuals (Dornyei 2002). According to 'Sports Psychology' (2008), the following diagram serves to illustrate the process of attribution. Motivation and self-efficacy It is true that motivation is the common denominator of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the orientation that an individual has the ability to execute the course of action required for him or her to manage prospective situations. Efficacy is only the power to create an effect; but self-efficacy is the belief that one holds the power to create or produce that effect. For one to develop the belief he or she must be motivated. Without motivation, no belief can be sustained (Hill 2001) Models of health behavior Health belief model Developed by the researchers at the U.S. Public Health Service in the 1950's, the Health Belief Model attempted to predict and explain a given health related behavior from certain patterns of belief about the advocated health behavior and the health difficulties that such a behavior was intended to control or prevent. According to 'Health Belief Model', 2008 and Moran (2004), to explain and predict a health-related behavior, the model postulates the following conditions. 1. An individual believes that his or her health is at risk. This is the belief in susceptibility 2. the individual recognizes the "Potential seriousness' of the condition in terms of discomfort or pain, economic difficulties, time lost from work, or other outcomes 3. On measuring the circumstances, the individual believes that the benefits arising from the recommended behavior far outweigh the inconvenience and costs, and that such benefits are within reach. It should be noted that this set of beliefs are the anticipated or the perceived benefits or costs (Predisposing factors), and are not in any way equivalent to actual barriers and rewards (Reinforcing factors). 4. The individual receives a precipitating force, or a quest to act. This quest makes the individual to experience the need to take action. Though the model has changed greatly in the recent past, it relates largely to the cognitive issues that presuppose an individual to a health behavior, concluding with a conviction in the individual's self efficacy for the behavior (Health Belief Model 2008). The Theory of Reasoned Model This theory is also a cognitive based behavioral theory, bearing some of the hallmarks of the Health Belief Model. This theory states that the person's intention to perform a certain behavior determines the individual performance of that behavior. According to Grizzel (2007), this intention is determined by two important factors. The first factor is the individual's attitudes towards the said behavior. This includes the values of these outcomes and the beliefs about the outcomes of the behavior. The second factor is the influence of the subjective norm or the person's social environment. This includes the beliefs about what other individuals think the person should act. The perceived behavioral control concept is very similar to the self- efficacy concept, or the individual's perception of his or her capability to perform the set behavior. In this sense, perceived behavioral control over resources, opportunities, and skills necessary to perform a set behavior is one of the significant aspects of behavior change processes (Grizzel 2007). Theory of Planned Behavior According to Grizzel (2007), the above theory is a link between behavior and attitudes. Proposed by Icek Ajzen, the theory is an extension of the already discussed theory of reasoned action. Being one of the prominent persuasion theories, it has found its application in studies involving the attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and behavioral intentions. The theory holds that prediction of behavior can only be through analyzing the specific attitudes towards that behavior. Individual's subjective norms need to be measured, in addition to measuring the attitudes towards the behavior. The theory says that knowing the attitudes and beliefs of an individual is very important in predicting his intentions. Finally, the theory believes that intentions are influenced by perceived behavioral control, or individual's perception of their capability to perform some given behaviors (Theory of Planned Behavior 2004). Transtheoretical model The above model is presently conceptualized in terms of some major dimensions. The dimensions are organized in the stages of change. This entails some ordered categories along a range of motivational readiness to change a problematic behavior. The processes of change - some set independent variables- effect the transitions between the stages of change. The model also comprises some outcome or intervening variables. This includes the advantages and disadvantages of change - otherwise known as decision balance, the confidence in the capability to change across problematic situations - otherwise known as self-efficacy, behaviors that are specific to the problem area, and situational temptations to engage in the problematic behavior. Among other dependent or intermediate variables, this model includes other environmental, socio-economic, psychological, cultural, biochemical, physiological, and even genetic variables or behavior precise to the problem being studied (Transtheoretical model 2008) References Bennett, P. & Murphy, S 1997. Psychology and Health Promotion. Philadelphia: Open University Press, Available from: books.google.co.ke/booksisbn=0736037489. [ October 28, 2008.] Biddle, J. H., & Mutrie, N 2001. Psychology of Physical Activity. Routledge. Available from: http://books.google.co.ke/booksid=Zt0mYJ0FoAkC&pg=PA88&lpg=PA88&dq=Harters+motivation+theory+and+exercise+psychology&source=web&ots=QgAB9jf0xC&sig=htlZLLXOWgfjsOiQO3cazu-2v5w&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA87,M1 [28, October, 2008] Brannon, L., & Feist, J 1997. Health Psychology-an introduction to behavior and health (3rd edition): pacific groove, California: Brooks / Cole. Available from: books.google.co.ke/booksisbn=0805849246..., [October 28, 2008.] DiNardo, S 2005. Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation and Exercise Adherence. Vertex fitness. Available from: http://www.vertexfit.com/articles/Intrin_vsExtrin_Motiv.pdf [28, October, 2008] Dombeck, M. & Wells-Moran, J 2008. Methods for Changing Behavior and Thoughts. MentalHelp.net. Available from: http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.phptype=doc&id=9730&cn=353 [28, October, 2008] Dornyei, Z 2002. Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. Cambridge University Press. 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"Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs." Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta GA: Valdosta State University. Available from: http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/regsys/maslow.html [28, October, 2008] Huitt, W 2001. Motivation to Learn: An Overview. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta GA: Valdosta State University. Available from: http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/motivation/motivate.html [28, October, 2008] Ingledew, D.K., & Handy, L 2004. "Attribution in Sport Psychology." Journal of PsychSport, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 213-214. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6W6K-4DWGW2Y-2&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=f292dfb0eb186252902818fd28b50c1e [28, October, 2008] Moran, A.P 2004. Sport and exercise psychology: a critical introduction. London: Routledge. Pat, S 1991 "Exercise Adherence." ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education. Washington D.C. Available from: http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9219/exercise.htm [28, October, 2008] Primer, S 2007. Attribution Theory: Why I'll tell you. Healthy Influence. Available from: http://www.healthyinfluence.com/Primer/attribution.htm [28, October, 2008] Sheridan, C.L., & Radmucher, S.A. 1992. "Challenging the Biomedical Model" Health Psychology, Wiley. Available from: www.pmfhk.cz/VZL/VZL6_2003/04.pdf -, [October 28, 2008]. Smith, J.M 1998 "The origin of altruism," Nature 393, 1998, pp. 639-40. Summary Overview of the Transtheoretical Model 2008. Cancer Prevention Research. Available from: http://www.uri.edu/research/cprc/transtheoretical.htm [28, October, 2008] Sports Psychology: The Importance of Attributions- or how to learn from success and failure alike 2008. Peak performance. Available from: http://www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/attribution.html [28, October, 2008] Seraganian, P 1993. Exercise Psychology: The Influence of Physical Exercises on Psychological Processes. John Wiley and Sons. Available from: http://books.google.co.ke/bookshl=en&id=gBgLWFqehSgC&dq=exercise+psychology&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=K9jPM_NKqP&sig=LewKXFu769-sgTfJtomqPCJVP5E&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA8,M1 [28, October, 2008]. Theory of Planned behavior 2004. TCW. Available from http://www.cw.utwente.nl/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Health%20Communication/theory_planned_behavior.doc/ [28, October, 2008] Read More