Aggression and its influence on sporting performance - Essay Example

Aggression and its influence on sporting performance What is Aggression When attempting to define pornography in the 1980s, a congressman investigating pornography remarked "I know it when I see it." In fact, there is a book with that title, I Know It When I See It: Pornography, Violence, and Public Sensitivity, by Michael Leach. Leach looks at the role of pornography in violence, so perhaps his book serves as a good jumping off point for the present consideration of aggression and violence is sports. Justice Potter Stewart used what is sometimes called the "I know it when I see it" test for identifying obscenity, something that is easy to identify, as least on an individual basis, but difficult to define. Perhaps aggression is easier to identify and define, but like so many areas of life, the boundaries as to what constitutes aggressive acts may sometimes be blurred. In general, on an interpersonal level, aggression can be defined as "a response that delivers noxious stimuli to another organism." (Buss, 1) Daniel Wann defines aggression as intentionally harming someone verbally, physically or psychologically (Wann). Perhaps these definitions seem straightforward and clear to most people, but it certainly becomes more blurred in the sports environment such as in soccer, football and the "non-contact" sport of basketball where elbows under the basket are common forms of "non-contact"! In recent years, aggression in sports seems to have increased. Wann points out a number of recent aggressive sports situations. He gives the Marty McSorley and David Brashear incident, mentioned earlier, as an example. McSorley was suspended for the season and charged with assault. Brashear received a concussion. This is an example of player violence, common in hockey, but also far too common in other sports. In football, baseball and basketball, riots have resulted in property damage, arrests and death during and after sporting event. Aggression itself is not violent, but rather, aggressive acts can, and often do lead to violence. For example, a person can be aggressive on the chessboard without leading to any acts of violence unless the ultimate checkmate of the victor is viewed as violent. By contrast, aggression in sports and in other areas of life can lead to significant violence. For example, aggressive driving can lead to road rage, and has been known to lead to injury and death, and so, aggression can be a very serious matter. In sports, violence is any behavior that causes harm, occurs outside of the rules of the sport, and is unrelated to the competitive objectives of the sport (Terry and Jackson, 2). Leonard has pointed out two forms of aggression in sports, instrumental aggression reactive aggression. (Terry and Jackson, 2) Instrumental aggression is task-oriented and non-emotional while reactive aggression is goal oriented, the goal being to intentionally cause harm. It is an intentional and emotional act. Wann also refers to two kinds of aggression, hostile aggression and instrumental. Like Terry and Jackson, Wann defines instrumental aggression as being driven by something other than causing harm, usually for the purpose of winning, and he defines hostile aggression as aggression motivated by anger and intended solely to cause harm. The perpetrator wants the victim to suffer. So, in looking through the literature on aggression, the reader might be warned to look for "hostile" aggression and "reactive" aggression as the same thing. In outlining and structuring this report on the influence of aggression in sports performance, we have followed and barrowed from the general outlines of Buss and Ismat Abdal-Haqq. Buss outlines some general concepts for aggression that are germane to the subject of the occurrence of aggression in general and in sports. Ismat Abdal-Haqq takes these same concepts one-step further by focusing them and applying them to how aggression impacts sports. Aggressive acts require a stimulus for aggression and a target of aggression. It does not occur just because a target is present. (Buss, 61) Even in situations where a target happens alone and becomes the victim of an unprovoked aggressive act, a stimulus exists. The stimulus may have occurred prior to the appearance of the victim, and thus may appear unrelated to his or her appearance thus giving the appearance aggression without a stimulus, but the stimulus and the aggression are still related. Aggression can generalize to different targets and from different stimuli, but it generalizes to different stimuli more readily than to different targets (Buss, 64). Aggressive behavior can be, and often is conditioned. Once conditioned to a particular a noxious stimulus such as frustration, attack or annoyances, aggressive behavior may readily spread to other stimuli. Although Buss states that aggressive behavior does not spread to other targets as readily as to other stimuli, aggression upon one target can lead to aggression to other targets. For example, with the general fear of terror activity after 9/11, non Arabs and non Muslims are more likely to fear Arabs and Muslims and to view them as sources of terror than they are to view Asians, blacks or Hispanics as such, but while this may be true, the fear still may generalize to all Arabs or all Muslims, so being "more likely" not to spread to other targets does not mean "unlikely". Buss identifies two general classes of noxious stimuli for aggression: a) primary and b) mediated. (Buss, 60-65) These classes are related to the concept that aggression is more likely to spread to different stimuli than to different targets. Once aggressive behavior has been conditioned, a stimulus that is similar to that to which the behavior was originally conditioned is a "primary" stimulus. In this situation, aggressive behavior has not generalized to other stimuli. By contrast, sometimes, two or more stimuli can be linked by a common response. In such cases, the second (new) stimulus or stimuli are referred to as "mediated." These two or more stimuli are linked by a common response. In a situation that involves a mediated stimulus, the second stimulus may not be physically similar to the first, yet it may still result in a common response as that resulting from the first. Although aggression may lead to or result from anger, it need not involve anger. The earlier example on the chessboard is an example. Like anger, reinforcement may increase aggressive behavior. For example, aggressive toys reinforce and elicit aggressive behavior (Feshback; Buss, 81). Reinforcement may play a particularly significant role in team sports. Buss says that aggression increases when there is no anger and decreases in the presence of anger (Buss, 89). However, encouragement reinforces aggression (or reduces the inhibition of aggressive acts). This point will become particularly significant in the sports environment where spectators provide encouragement, as we will see. Violence and aggression in team sports has increased over the years, particularly in contact sports such as ice hockey, football, and rugby. In recent years, the violence cannot always be related to direct contact. Rules have been changed in basketball, for example, because players have gone off the court to attack fans, and fans have come out of the stands to assault players. Football celebrations after a touchdown can lead to penalties in order to prevent end zone displays that upset players or incite fans to violence. Parents have assaulted individuals at high school games, and other aggressive acts have increased in team sports over the years. In hockey, for example Marty McSorley hit Donald Brashear in the head with a hockey stick with only 2 seconds left in the game. McSorley was suspended for the season and charged with assault. Brashear received a concussion. In basketball, brawls have resulted in members of both teams entering the court to break up the incident. Sometimes fans rather than incidents on the court provoke these brawls. Aggression and violence can and has involved and included coaches, players, parents, fans, and the media. The situation is so alarming that it has been referred to as an epidemic of violence in sports today (Leonard, 166). Perhaps this is an example of reinforcement for the sport gone overboard so as to transform into reinforcement for aggression. Reinforcement appears to be a particularly crucial factor in regards to aggression and violence in sports, especially in team sports, since both spectators and teammates can serve to reinforce aggressive acts and aggressive behaviors. In sports, reinforcement affects the sports participant and the spectator. A central question in sports is, "Do sports fans incite the players to violence or does fan excitement incite the player" Perhaps this is a mute question since spectator sports are not played in a vacuum. A logical conclusion would be that the interaction between the sports fans and the players is a two way street where each affects the other. Ironically, the evidence on this issue is inconclusive (Debenedotte, 207), but there is at least anecdotal evidence to support the idea that fans can incite aggressive behavior in the sports players they observe and the players can do likewise to the fans. Observe, for example, soccer games during the World Cup where spectators may engage in aggressive and violent behavior after a game. However, perhaps the affect of the spectators on aggressive behavior by the players' performance is more in doubt. When players are aggressive, are they reacting to the fans, to their teammates, to events on the field, to some internal cue or to some combination of these factors One factor certainly suggests that the players react to the fans just as the fans react to the players. Cheerleaders are present in many sports to encourage and motive the players to perform. The cheerleaders are meant to instill emotion in the fans, and those emotions are thought to motivate the players to perform. Sometimes this might result in violent or aggressive behavior, so if the efforts of cheerleaders motivate the players indirectly by motivating the fans, then there is an obvious effect on the players, or else cheerleaders serve no useful purpose. Although cheerleaders direct their actions towards the fans, their actual purpose is for the players. They are present to encourage the players and to improve the players' performance. Although the evidence is viewed as being inconclusive, we know that spectators take aggressive cues from players, coaches, cheerleaders, and one another, and player reaction to these cues drive the players to perform. Likewise, spectators often derive a sense of social identity and self-esteem from a team. Sports fans may emulate and identify with their favorite player or players. Group solidarity is evident, both between members of the team and its coaches and between the team and the fans. Lee points out that this emulation can lead to hostility and aggression both on and off the field, with members of one group showing hostility and aggression towards members of the opposing group. Members of each group view members of the opposing group as "outsiders" and enemies. Such an attitude may create and/or foster an attitude of hostility towards the "outsiders" or the "outgroup" as Lee refers to them. (Lee, 45) The bottom line is hostility directed to those outsiders, whether the group classification is based on ethnic, geographical or other factors. Spectator aggression often arises after championship games. This aggression can result in property damage, arrests, injuries and death. While such violence is generally after the fact, there is no reason to believe that the same emotions cannot be and are not expressed on the field. Players sometimes express the same emotions the field as those expressed by the fans off the field. Does spectator aggression affect the players' performance Perhaps, but at the very least one form of aggression can reflect or instigate the other. Three factors have been identified as contributing to spectator aggression. They are heat, identifying with the players on the field and the consumption of alcohol. Sometimes, fans that closely identify with their team cannot dissociate from the teams because of their close identity with the team. Such fans enter an unpleasant psychological state when the team loses. The team's loss is a personal loss to those fans and they lose self-esteem. While this may not affect the players' performance during the game, it certainly affects the sport and may ultimately affect the players and the opposing fans. Of course, the heat can affect everyone during a competition, and that effect may trigger increased tempers and aggression both on the field and off. We cannot overlook the role of the mass media. Does the media play any role in aggressive and violent behavior in sports While the media may promote sportsmen, both male and female, as "nice people", being the "nice guy" has its price in sports. Perhaps it is felt that nice guys don't criticize, so team mates may reframe from being critical of one another. Bach says that this can lead sportsmen and women to internal rage and fits of anger and self-attacks. This turns out to be a form of self-aggression that is only made worse when teammates, in an effort to be supportive and uncritical, fail to critique a teammate who is playing poorly. Even though players go all out to win, they are not they are not supposed to exult over their triumphs or criticize another's play or mistake because it is not good sportsmanship. In some situations, this may cause self-anger in players who are not playing up to par as they may get angry at their own flaws. (Bach, 38) However, this has led to rule changes such as too much celebrating in the end zone in football. Such rules may be designed both reduce self-anger (which it may sometimes stimulate) and to eliminate humiliation. We cannot overlook the role of the mass media. Does the media play any role in aggressive and violent behavior in sports Despite the effort to be impartial in reporting news, the media certainly is anything but impartial in sports. Although the national news may be impartial, if you are in Chicago, you are expected to be a Chicago Bulls fan and to admire and respect Michael Jordon and Scotty Pippen. If you live is San Francisco, you are expected to be a fan of Joe Montana. The news media and other factors promotes this attitude, but does this also promote violence Leonard maintains that the mass media contributes to the acceptability of sports. Leonard (166) He feels that the media occupies a paradoxical position. The media gives exposure to sports-related violence via television, magazines, newspapers and the radio. While national media may give the pretense of being nonpartisan, the local media makes no such pretense. "We are for our team, and either you are for us or against us!" Victories are awarded by the media and "reasonable" violence is expected as opposing teams meet face to face. The media glamorizes the team and the players, and "controversial and aggressive behavior" is often rewarded in this manner. Leonard states that media "commentary is laced with descriptions suggestive of combat, linking excitement to violent action. On the other hand, the exposure given to sports violence by the media has stimulated increased efforts to control and prevent such behavior." (Leonard, 166) Researchers feel that aggression in sports can be reduced if we understand what causes aggressive behavior. Once understood, it is believed that we can address those issues and reduce aggressive behavior aggressive behavior is sports. Present theories to understand and explain aggression is sports focus on three ideas, a biological theory, a psychological theory and a social learning theory. (Terry and Jackson, 27; Leonard, 170-71) While Terry and Jackson and a few other proponents of each theory may feel that one theory predominates over the others (Terry and Jackson, 35), there is no reason to believe or assume that any of the theories, if correct, are mutually exclusive. Terry and Jackson suggest that socialization forces, particularly reinforcement, offer the best focus for intervention. They add that dealing with situations that produce frustration will simultaneously address the psychological forces behind sports aggression. The Austrian zoologist, ethologist and Nobel Laureate Konrad Lorenz proposed a biological theory of aggression. Lorenz believed that aggression is a basic animal instinct and is inherent in humans. Although he did not specially apply his ideas to violence in sports, others have done so since his death in 1989. Proponents of Lorenz's idea view sports as a valid means of dealing with and discharging aggressive behavior. It may serve as a means to deal with eliminate or reduce aggression, that is, sports may serve as a safety value to reduce aggression by letting off steam. Although there may be some grounds for this belief, it is also clear that sports may have the opposite effect. Lorenz's idea does not address the means to reduce aggression, so if aggression is inherent in animals, it seems clear that sports may represent two sides of the same issue, that is, it may help deal with and/or manage aggression or it may help trigger aggression. As is true of the three theories of aggression, the roles of biology in dealing with aggression in sports and triggering it are not mutually exclusive. Ironically, proponents of this idea fail to point out that, if sports help players to let off steam, it is a safety value to address aggressive behavior outside of sports. Therefore, it probably has little to do with aggressive behavior in sports. Frustration is thought to play a major role in aggressive behavior in sports. As such, the psychological theory deals with aggression in sports more readily than the biological theory. This theory is based on the assumption that aggression is caused by frustration. In sports, frustration builds when the sports participant's efforts to achieve a goal are blocked. (Leonard, 170) Theories of the psychological view of aggression in sports as being founded in frustration may be shortsighted since, as discussed later, psychology generally uses paradigms that involve reward and reinforcement. Therefore, researchers may need to clarify the difference between psychological aggression and the socially learned aggression to be discussed next. While both biology and psychology may play a role in aggressive behavior in sports, and none of the three theories of aggression in sports are mutually exclusive, the concept of social learning is perhaps the most attractive of the three theories. This idea appeals because it has factors in common with proven ideas already known and accepted as factors involved with aggression both in and out of sports. Thus, it is already backed by a great deal of empirical data. This theory holds that aggression is a socially learned behavior. Whether or not it accounts for all or most aggression in sports, we know that some aggression is learned. According to the social learning theory, aggression is learned through modeling and is reinforced by punishment and reward. (Leonard, 171) It is well known that people get role models and heroes from various areas of society. Sports heroes are only one source of heroes, and people tend to mimic their heroes and use them as role models. This is true of people of all ages, perhaps especially children, but not just children. Sports figures, singers, movie stars, politicians, and many other areas of society serve as sources of role models. People, especially young people, model their behavior after their role models. The theory of social learning holds that these role models serve as the models for aggressive and non-aggressive behavior, but here, we're only concerned with their contribution to aggressive behavior. Like sports, television and motion pictures provide role models for behavior and social learning, including aggression. Studies demonstrate that television and motion picture audiences participate vicariously in the images and roles they view on the screen. This provides evidence for a similar role in sports. That is, sports fans participate vicariously in the events they experience in sports events. (Siegel; Buss, 82) As concerns violence, events in sports events probably transfers to players involved in the sports action and to individuals watching the events. Violent and aggressive behavior is stimulated by reinforcement. Of course, reinforcement supports the theory of aggression as a socially learned behavior, but reinforcement is a psychological concept as well. Reinforced aggression is sports is similar to that afforded by other forms of entertainment such as television and movies discussed earlier, and in fact, each supports a role for the other in providing role models and bringing or aggressive, sometimes violent and other types of behavior. Stimulus and reward is the general paradigm for learned behavior, and stimulus reward paradigms generally require reinforcement. In fact, even though reinforcement is viewed as an aspect of social learning, it actually overlaps the psychological theory of aggression. Stimulus-reward is a classic paradigm of psychology where both positive and negative reinforcement are recognized. Perhaps the focus of the psychological theory of aggression on frustration is too limited. If may be more reasonable to recognize gray areas of overlap between the psychological and the social learning theories of aggression. In sports, positive reinforcement may take the form of praise, trophies, medals, rings, starting position, respect of friends, family and more. Vicarious reinforcement may be derived from seeing professional players lionized and paid huge salaries, in spite of, or because of, their aggressive style of play (Leonard, 171). In some sports, aggressiveness is expected, even desired, but whereas aggressive behavior may be desired, violent behavior may not be desired. Although related, perhaps, the two are not necessarily the same. In sports where aggressiveness is desired, those players who don't display the desired degree of aggressiveness may receive negative reinforcement through criticism from parents and coaches, lack of playing time, harassment by teammates, opponents, or spectators. In other words, those who fail to display the appropriate degree of aggression may receive negative reinforcement while aggression stimulates desired rewards-positive reinforcement. Terry and Jackson (30) have identified three sources of reinforcement for violent behavior in sports. All three sources of reinforcement for aggressive behavior support a role for social learning aggressive sports behavior. If the psychological theory is expanded beyond frustration to the typical paradigms of psychology, these sources of reinforcement also support the psychological theory of aggression. Athletes get reinforcement from their immediate reference group, the structure of their sport and the attitudes of the fans, media, and other attitudes. Athletes certainly get reinforcement from their immediate reference group-coaches, teammates, family and friends. These certainly represent the most important sources of reinforcement athletes commonly receive. Of course, the letters, medals, ribbons and trophies are desired, but an athlete's immediate reference group generally shares in these awards with the athlete. The structure of the sport in question may also foster aggressive behavior. In my view, hockey is one example. While hockey is a contact sport, I've always viewed most of the violence in hockey as being all out of proportion to the relatively low amount of contact in the sport. In my view, although there are occasions where players may accidentally run into one another, the contact is not like football where violent contact is required in every play just to end the play. Aggression in hockey generally appears to result from players losing control due to some internal trigger or cue. Soccer, the other football, or perhaps the real football, has slightly more contact than hockey, and yet far less on field aggression. So, somehow, aggressive behavior is built into the structure of hockey, no in the rules, but in the expectations and traditions of the sport. By contrast, American football has aggression and violence built into the game. The game is structured around aggressive behavior, and many of the rules are designed to prevent needless aggression. The same is true of rugby. So, in some sports, the structure of the game and the implementation of the rules by the game officials and governing bodies are designed to keep needless aggressive behavior in check. The attitude of the fans certainly plays a role in aggressive behavior in sports. Going back to hockey, fans expect aggression even though aggression is not necessarily a foregone conclusion is hockey. Some hockey fans attend the games for the violence. In fact, more hockey fans may expect violence than do football fans, whether they be fans of American football or World Cup Football/Soccer. The media may play a role in this source of aggression by glorifying certain aggressive behavior although the media generally tries not to glorify violent behavior. In hockey, American football and soccer, society as a whole is likely to reinforce aggressive behavior. If there is too much violence and aggression in sports, then ultimately, we need to determine how prevent aggressive and violent behavior in sports competition from having an undesirable effect on youths. Participating in sports should be enjoyable and fun for both the athlete and the spectator. Sports serve as valuable sources of entertainment and contribute to the physical and emotional development and well being of the spectator and the participant alike. Sports also help to develop social skills. Those who can interact well in sports activities are probably more likely to interact well in other aspects of life. Physical education is an important component of our schools and our educational system. With all the weight problems and all the lures to lead an increasingly sedentary life style in the computer age, the value and importance of physical education in our schools has only increased. Not only does physical education promote a person's well-being and help to develop social skills, but it also promotes and encourages better exercise habits, habits that, if continued throughout life, will do children well as they mature and grow old. (Roskosz, 7) Certainly, we would not like to see aggressive and violent behavior curb or negate the valuable benefits of physical education in our schools or put an end to physical education programs. Unfortunately, there is now compelling evidence that sports may sometimes produce low self-esteem is some children due to the pressures associated with sports. (Hellstedt, 60, 62). Sports participants are expected to excel. Failure to do so can lead to excessive anxiety and aggressive behavior. (Hellstedt, 60, 62) Anxiety may arise from family, friends, teammates, coaches and/or fans. In fact, some of the anxiety may arise internally from the individual him/herself. Failure to live up to their own standards or to do as well as they think they can may give rise to a self-critical or self-debasing attitude. Such an attitude may give rise to aggression due to the individual's lost self-confidence. In such a case, the individual may show aggression towards others in his or her effort to build his own self-esteem. This anxiety may also lead to "burnout", a situation where the individual develops a lifelong avoidance of the sport or of physical activity in general. (Hellstedt, 60, 62) Of course, this is the very opposite of the character building virtues that participation in sports is hoped to provide. Research on aggression in sports has focused on athletes, spectators and the parents of youths. The factors that affect player aggression and performance differ depending on the source of the effect. With regards to players, heat, the point differential and frustration affect aggression. With respect to the spectator/fans, heat, role modeling and alcohol consumption affect aggression. Parents contribute to aggression on the field by behaving aggressively themselves off the field. This may contribute to the aggressive behavior of their children on the field, if not during the game in question, then perhaps in future games. Parents can get overly involved and abusive when watching their children compete, perhaps out of excitement, perhaps out of hopes for future financial gain. The latter idea is that the athletic prowess of their child might eventually result in a financial windfall such as a college scholarship or a career in professional sports. This is referred to as "The Jackpot Theory." (Wann) In this situation, the parents have lost sight of the fun of the game and have focused on something else. It is sport for the purpose of gain rather than for enjoyment and the lessons sports might teach in terms of improving one's life. In conclusion, aggressive behavior is behavior that intentionally causes harm. Such behavior appears to be increasing in sports. In general, on an interpersonal level, aggression can be defined as "a response that delivers noxious stimuli to another organism." (Buss, 1) In sports, violence is any behavior that causes harm, occurs outside of the rules of the sport, and is unrelated to the competitive objectives of the sport Daniel Wann defines aggression as intentionally harming someone verbally, physically or psychologically. (Wann) The two recognized forms of aggression in sports are instrumental aggression reactive aggression. Aggressive acts require a stimulus for aggression and a target of aggression. Aggression does not occur just because a target is present. Aggression generalizes to different stimuli more readily than to different targets. In recent years, aggression in sports seems to have increased. Wann points out a number of recent aggressive sports situations. Aggression itself is not violent, but aggressive acts can, and often do lead to violence. Perhaps coaches are in the best position to deal with and decrease aggression in sports, but coaches, family, friends, fans and the players themselves all contribute to player aggression on the field, and that aggression does affect players' performance. REFERENCES Abdal-Haqq, Ismat. Violence in Sports. ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education Washington DC. January, 1989 < http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9214/sports.htm> 8 October 2006. Bach, George R, and Herb Goldberg. Creative Aggression. Doubleday & Company, Inc.: New York, NY, 1974. Berkowitz, Leonard (ed.). Aggression. A Social Psychological Analysis. 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