The Roles and Effects of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Sport - Essay Example

? An assessment of the roles and effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport BY YOU YOUR SCHOOL INFO HERE HERE Some sports participants are driven to remain dedicated to their favourite sport activity in order to receive accolades from the social environment, achieve prominence through the receipt of awards and media recognition, or for the monetary rewards available for victors of competitive sports. This is referred to as extrinsic motivation, or better defined, as engagement in an activity “as a means to an end and not for its own sake” (Vallerand and Rousseau 2001, p.391). There are other sporting participants that engage in sporting activity to fulfil inherent ambitions, seeking enjoyment and self-satisfaction that is experienced through participation (Reiss 2002). Intrinsic motivations encompass basic desires such as a need for independence, honour and loyalty, curiosity fulfilment, power, or even achievement of emotional tranquility (Reiss 2002). Sporting participants are considered to be intrinsically motivated if they are interested in mastering a sport, believe in their own self-efficacy, and seek out sporting recreation or competition autonomously with little or no concern for external influence. Self-efficacy, as pertaining to sports, should be defined as a person’s expected and measurable ability to achieve goals and ambitions. Galligan et al. (2000) offer that sports participants who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to continue engaging in sporting activities than participants that are extrinsically motivated. Toward validation of this hypothesis, it is necessary to understand the dimensions of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations and how these concepts relate to need to participate and stay dedicated to sport. This research project will attempt to prove the hypothesis that intrinsic motivation in sport is a more powerful motivator than extrinsic influencers. Intrinsic motivation should be defined as an inherent drive in individuals to feel competent and take pride in their accomplishments. Weinberg and Gould (2011) identify three distinct types of intrinsic motivations: knowledge, stimulation and accomplishment. Having intrinsic motivations pertaining to knowledge involves personal pleasure achieved through studying and learning new concepts associated with a favourite sport. Examples befitting this knowledge description would be learning new techniques for squatting in weight-lifting or bodybuilding or making pattern refinements associated with sporting process (Weinberg and Gould 2011). Having intrinsic motivations associated with stimulation is related to the emotional sensations that athletes experience in their favourite sport. This can be related to thrill-seeking ambitions, such as achieving personal excitement or even the perception of danger and risk (Weinberg and Gould). Accomplishment is measured by the personal satisfaction a sports participant achieves through direct mastery of specific skills that are tied to the sport, such as reaching a goal of lifting 300 pounds in bodybuilding or learning how to throw a consistent knock-out punch in boxing. Ryan and Deci (2000) view intrinsic motivation differently, attributing it to the phenomenon of self-determination, or the need for an individual to be self-regulated and driven to achieve a certain goal and take appropriate action to achieve that goal. In psychological theory, there are those that maintain a high, internalised locus of control, which is an innate set of beliefs that one has mastery and control over their destinies and can attain their goals without external support or fear of barriers theoretically imposed by external actors (Berry, Poortinga, Segall and Dasen 1992). When applying self-determination theory to sports participation and enduring commitment to sporting activities, people who are intrinsically motivated experience more excitement, confidence and interest which manifests itself in higher performance, more creativity in goal attainment tactics and persistence toward achievement of goals (Sheldon, Ryan, Rawsthorne and Ilardi 1997). Whether considering the role of intrinsic motivation in sports, the definition provided by Ryan and Deci (2000) and Weinberg and Gould (2011) differ moderately, however both theoretical positions indicate that intrinsically motivated individuals manifest more legitimate perseverance and dedication to sporting for the sake of satisfying a variety of inbuilt needs. When taking into evaluation the personality-centric attributes of individuals, such as maintaining an internalised locus of control and a strong belief in self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation is a powerful motivator that continues to contribute to enhanced drive and determination to remain committed to sports (Weinberg and Gould 2011). Though the specific needs, ranging from self-pride to more physiological needs such as thrill-seeking and emotional excitement, differ from one individual to another, there is ample evidence that intrinsically motivated individuals are more likely to stay committed to the specific goals related to one’s favourite sporting activity. In fact, goal orientation literature such as that provided by King and Williams (1997) illustrates that increased performance in certain sports, such as martial arts, is directly correlated with intrinsic factors associated with a mastery orientation. This is aligned with the position of Ryan and Deci (2000) and Weinberg and Gould (2011) indicating an accomplishment motivation and self-determination attribute that is completely devoid of outside influence by which an individual excels and remains committed to their sport. Though there is opportunity, theoretically, for outside influence to coincide with external influence, it would be difficult to measure considering that motivation and sports do not occur within a proverbial vacuum. When evaluating the overall value of theory associated with intrinsic motivation, it should be recognised that the majority of high-performing athletes with strong commitment and dedication are generally amateur sports enthusiasts (Deci and Ryan 1985). One that is evaluating the viability of the literature describing higher performance achievement and illustration of commitment to the amateur athlete should take into consideration that amateur sporting activity often does not provide externalised rewards for engagement. This is applicable in such sports as martial arts, dedication to local basketball in the community, or even cross-country skiing. Perhaps, taking a pragmatic approach to evaluation of the theory of intrinsic motivation, inherent needs only manifest themselves into better commitment and perseverance in absence of external rewards. This is supported strongly by Galligan et al. (2000) that cite an example of professional boxers who, when they attain a comfortable living provided by monetary rewards, are known not to train as hard in the future as they did during their earlier career experiences. Even though in theory the boxing professional (non-amateur) may have once been driven by knowledge, mastery and accomplishment motivations, introduction of external rewards would theoretically have the ability to reduce inherent ambitions. Research did not uncover any measurement tests by which to fully engage this theory, however Galligan et al. (2000) indicate this is a common phenomenon. Extrinsic motivation is motivation that occurs as a direct result of externalised rewards achieved by the sports participant for their engagement in a sporting activity. Ryan and Deci (2000) view extrinsically motivated individuals as those who engage in an activity not for the pursuit of inherent satisfactions, but to receive recognition from the social environment, monetary rewards, or receipt of general positive feedback. Weinberg and Gould (2011) identify four distinct varieties of extrinsic motivation: integrated regulation, identified regulation, introjected regulation and external regulation. Integrated regulation happens when athletes engage in a sporting activity to provide benefits to other areas of lifestyle. For instance, hard core training for a specific sport engages the individual in the sporting activity to ensure they do not have future health problems associated with lethargy. Though this characteristic of an extrinsically-motivated individual cannot absolutely be segregated from intrinsic motivation, it does illustrate a motivational influence other than inherent needs for accomplishment. Identified regulation involves being engaged with a sport not because the individual enjoys the activity, but because the outcomes of engagement have other higher value benefits. A quality example of identified regulation would be engaging in bodybuilding to gain self-esteem when the social environment applauds the individual for gaining musculature (Weinberg and Gould 2011). Introjected regulation is when athletes engage in a sport activity due to external pressures. For instance, an individual might regularly attend their local gym as a means of impressing a variety of social reference groups and gain important adoration from those impressed by physique. This is similar to integrated regulation, however integrated regulation is not influenced by peer or social pressure in the same degree as introjected regulation. Ntoumanis (2001) does indicate that when introjected regulation is an extrinsic motivator, it can increase anxiety. Anxiety can be a powerful motivator (Simpson, Neria, Lewis-Fernandez and Schneier 2010). When unpleasant anxieties have been developed, it often leads to addiction (Simpson et al. 2010), which could explain a variable in why certain individuals indulge in obsessive sports engagement. External regulation occurs when a sports player engages in the sport because they feel the activity is absolutely mandated or when they will be receiving reward for engagement. Having identified the four different extrinsic motivational factors, it is necessary to determine whether externalised influence is actually a more potent influencer for sporting dedication, allegiance and enthusiasm. Vallerand and Losier (1999) state that the influences of social persuasion are very significant predictors of motivational responses. This is not wholly surprising, however, considering the plethora of psychology-centred literature describing the universal need for social affiliation and self-esteem (King 2009; Maslow 1999). According to psychological theory, attainment of social belonging and development of self-esteem are necessary constructs in order to become fully self-actualised, which is defined as achieving the pinnacle and stature of one’s superior abilities. Unless social belonging and self-esteem development are provided through engagement with the social environment, sports participants will not be able to attain the drive necessary to pursue maximum self-enlightenment or superior quest for knowledge to become the maximum of his or her personal potential (Morris and Maisto 2005). The primary needs of belonging and esteem must be present as universal human behavioural constructs to become fully functional emotionally and cognitively. The importance of social influence as a motivational factor explains a considerable amount of the mitigating factors that cause individuals to engage in sports for reasons other than personal enjoyment and satisfaction. It has been said that money makes the world go round, thus providing a rather universal externalised motivation for engaging in sport activities. However, the position of Weinberg and Gould (2011) regarding the four different motivators for engaging in sporting activity mostly point toward the influence of the social environment as being encouragement and inducement for seeking involvement in sport. Should, then, social considerations be judged as the most dominant variable in extrinsic motivation? Whether the extrinsic motivation is identified regulation or introjected regulation, achievement of self-esteem and social approval are relevant situations that ensure ongoing sporting activity commitment. This requires further examination in order to understand the influences of externalised persuasion and to either refute or support the hypothesis that intrinsic motivations are more effective in motivating athletes. To compare the potential significance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, it is necessary to examine two distinct case studies involving famous professional athletes that have been alleged to be motivated both intrinsically and extrinsically, respectively. The research spotlight shines on Kelly Holmes, a reported intrinsically motivated British middle distance track athlete made famous for achieving a gold medal in the 2004 Athens Summer Olympics. At the early age of only 12 years old, Holmes was driven to engage in physical training for an athletic career. After abandoning, shortly, her aspirations for becoming a professional track and field athlete in favour of a military career, Holmes quickly found much more personal enthusiasm and drive pertaining to sports and returned to athletics training in 1992. Offered Holmes in a 2005 interview, “I wasn’t sure I was enjoying life, being completely army barmy” (Holt 2005, p.2). Hence, Holmes found the personal satisfaction, enthusiasm and drive primarily in sporting competition, aligned with the position of Ryan and Deci (2000) about self-determination and Weinberg and Gould (2011) regarding personal stimulation and accomplishment. Kelly found no inherent enjoyment in pursuing a military career and, instead, found personal fulfilment through competitive sports which shows an intrinsically motivated competitor. What significantly indicates that Holmes was intrinsically motivated was the level of emotional response illustrated by this famous athlete after sustaining a substantial personal injury that forced an early retirement from competitive sports. Whilst training in 2004, Holmes sustained a serious leg injury that led to significant depression. Before evaluating additional intrinsic motivational factors, it should be recognised that depression is not necessarily applicable to only the intrinsically motivated. However, having discussed the motivational differences between Holmes’ motivational levels to pursue a military career as opposed to competitive sports, it is likely that the nature of this depression would have been much less significant if the injury occurred during military experiences and training. After revealing to the media that Holmes had proceeded to slash herself using a pair of scissors as a manifestation of this depression, she offered “I made one cut for every day that I had been injured” (Knight 2005, p.1). Michael Caulfield, a respected sports psychology researcher, indicated that this type of self-harm occurs in athletes when their aspirations for achievement are affected by injury, believing that their bodies have essentially let the athlete down (Knight 2005); a type of self-loathing inspired by an inability to engage in activities that once brought substantial personal fulfilment. An athlete that engaged in sporting activities as a means of gaining externalised rewards (extrinsic motivation) would not have this level of serious emotional disturbance, but would simply pursue other activities that provide similar gains. Again, this is supported by the lack of depression for exiting the military environment and the thrill that returned through sports training and competition. Though this is only a singular case study, it does illustrate that even though Holmes was capable of achieving further external rewards after healing from her injuries (media coverage, social esteem and financial gains), the depth of self-loathing stemming from injury significantly ended her motivation to continue pursuing competitive athletics. Lance Armstrong, the celebrity cyclist made famous for victory in the Tour de France, was recently ousted from competitive athletics for participation in performance enhancing doping. Armstrong appears to fit the profile of an extrinsically motivated athlete which served as his firm motivations for engaging in this unethical doping activity. Though Armstrong may have been intrinsically motivated during his early cycling career, Armstrong himself provides substantial evidence that it was the receipt of social accolades, monetary reward, and media coverage that drove his decision-making whilst misleading society and racing officials about his unethical behaviours. During a recent interview conducted after being exposed for taking performance enhancing drugs, Lance Armstrong stated, “I was told I was invincible” (Marlow 2013, p.1) and “it’s not possible to win seven Tours without doping” (India Blooms 2013, p.1). Armstrong’s quotations are applicable only to extrinsic motivations as they illustrate social reinforcement and serves to justify his sentiment that he continued competing simply to receive the yellow jerseys that promoted his brand and his accomplishments. What makes Armstrong’s case study so relevant to extrinsic motivation and as justification for theory in this phenomenon is that Armstrong not only justifies his choice to engage in doping as a means to achieving victory and public accolades, but illustrates his low, externalised locus of control which is not a characteristic of one who is intrinsically motivated. Armstrong supports his decision by suggesting that the cycling environment is “a level playing field” (Marlow 2013, p.1) and that he could not achieve victory based solely on his own talents and competencies as compared to others in the competitive sport. This is not associated with intrinsic motivation which was identified by Barry et al. (1992) in which an individual must have a sense of self-efficacy in order to pursue sports participation for reasons other than receipt of external rewards and benefits. What remains unclear in the case study of Armstrong is whether his ambitions for cycling were once internalised, but were tainted in the long-term by the presence and influence of important external factors such as the social condition, compensatory gains, or achievement of celebrity status worldwide. It would require additional research utilising Armstrong as the focus of research and inherent needs as well as externalised influences as variables to determine this effectively. Armstrong did not, however, after being exposed for these behaviours, pursue other alternative sporting activities, which would again seem to indicate that the majority (if not all) of Armstrong’s motivations were extrinsic and not intrinsic. An individual that is dedicated intrinsically to sport competition would pursue additional engagement with their favourite sport, such as in the case of Kelly Holmes. What is interesting in making comparisons between Kelly Holmes and Lance Armstrong is the depth to which Holmes felt it necessary to chastise and fall into a pit of depression for factors that were largely out of her scope of control. Armstrong, instead, did not seem to attempt to internalise his decision-making processes, instead assigning blame to the competitive cycling industry and the talent proficiency of his competitive rivals as a means of justifying illegal doping. Through a critical lens of evaluation, there is much more evidence in the Holmes case study that intrinsic ambitions were dominant motivators that led to significant mental health problems for failing to fulfil these complex emotional needs. Armstrong, on the other hand, appeared more disappointed that his career had ended, perhaps a sadness over lack of social adoration and monetary benefits of cycling, which influenced his decision not to further pursue competitive sports participation. Holmes, on the other hand, has remained a notable public figure and advocate for sports competition and assisting in training other aspiring athletes, indicating a genuine zeal for sport participation. Much of the debate about the extrinsic versus intrinsic motivations of Lance Armstrong and Kelly Holmes, respectively, is subjective since neither has been the spotlight of research studies designed to understand their emotional and cognitive processes. However, when taking into consideration the foundations of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, both appear to accurately fit the profile of one that utilises sports for external rewards versus inherent drive and ambition. The report indicates that intrinsic motivation is a potential, dominant motivator for engagement in sports activity. The influencing factors of this type of motivation theorise that individuals that sustain this type of inherent drive for sport involvement are more creative, high performing, confident and persevering toward goal attainment. In opposite accord, sports participants that are motivated by external rewards will often, according to theory, manifest these same characteristics, but ultimately lose enthusiasm once they have achieved the pinnacle of public accolades or other relevant externalised reward. After having examined the literature regarding intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sporting activity and evaluating the case studies involving Holmes and Armstrong, it would appear that there is much more support for the hypothesis that intrinsic motivations have the most significant and dominant effect on motivating athletes. Even though extrinsic rewards, ranging from social stimuli to monetary gain, can definitely produce a dedicated and committed sports enthusiast, there is little evidence that externalised remuneration will sustain long-term motivations. There is much stronger support, instead, for the dominance of intrinsic motivations when considering the case study of Kelly Holmes, an individual that experienced severe psychological problems whenever life situations prevented her from engaging in her favourite, stimulating competitive athletics. Even after sustaining numerous medals in Holmes’ sport, which could have easily translated into instant financial reward in the form of celebrity product endorsements and a plethora of other lucrative opportunities, Holmes continued to stay dedicated to competitive sport up until injury made this impossible. Research did not uncover any notable instances of athletes that eventually exhausted their externalised benefits for engaging in competitive sports and either illustrated the type of emotional problems shown by Holmes or sought a return to the sport after exiting as a participant or competitor. The research provides ample support that intrinsic motivations are more effective in motivating athletes, far and above the payback provided by external influence for sports participants. It should also be recognised that there are limitations to firmly stating that intrinsic motivations are the most dominant motivator for sports participation and dedication. It is not as cut and dry as this, especially when comparing only two famous sports professionals rather than focusing on a larger sample population of research participants to measure inherent drives versus the influence of external persuasions. However, Holmes provided a unique example of one that was willing to abandon military careerism without facing depression or general concern about lack of personal fulfilment. When, however, sports were impacted by injury, radical changes in behaviour were identified. This type of willingness to abandon sports was illustrated by the boxing aficionado more than willing to abandon their favourite sport once the externalised rewards ran out. It should, therefore, be restated that intrinsic motivations appear much more powerful as justification for the hypothesis. References Berry, J.W., Poortinga, Y.H., Segall, M.H. and Dasen, P.R. (1992). Cross-cultural psychology: research and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. New York: Plenum. Galligan, F., Maskery, C., Spence, J., Howe, D., Barry, T., Ruston, A. and Crawford, D. (2000). Advanced PE for Edexcel. 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