Psychological Discussion Questions - Coursework Example

?Running head: Psychology Psychology Lecturer Discuss the effect the Renaissance had on psychology. The word Renaissance was first discovered by scholars to represent the art of change and later the word was slowly made into a reality (Clay, 2002). The scholars attribute this to affect the Renaissance had on psychology due to looking into the future and the past at the same time. Renaissance restores the consciousness of the individual so as they can neglect subjective data. Views that are non-pathologized were encourages because it opened a whole new way of thinking (Clay, 2002). Renaissance mostly of the 14th and 15th century occurred as a result of a compartmentalized society. Factors such as urbanization, increasing in trading zones and a swelling up population were some of the factors that led to its start. Renaissance individuals look at the classical times and assume that the olden days were bathed in sunlight. The economic changes have also been influenced by the Renaissance as observed by Clay (2002). Most individuals attracted to the ancient literature surprisingly had a background to which they could associate the ancient pieces with. The connection is associated with the Renaissance conscience. Perfection underlies the Renaissance aristocratic because it painted the true picture and raises questions on certain issues. The whole idea is to influence people’s curiosity and have those asking questions even in areas such as religion where people fear to question their leadership. Over time people have been fed that it is not right to question religion because that would be like questioning the creator. The effect of Renaissance for example tried in the 14th century tried to Christianize humanity (Clay, 2002). The Renaissance tried to rediscover the new meaning of mankind. It assisted mankind protest over organized religion, culture and other ancient regiments. This was more of a movement force that convinced the people to shift their beliefs and values and seek outside assistance. Explain how Thorndike ruled out the idea that cats could learn to escape through reasoning and imitation. Our knowledge of the sense-power of animals equals that of their mental cycle, hence the experience built up by the reactions or instincts. A sound such as ‘kitty kitty’ is associated by a kitten as availability of some good milk to drink. This may fail to explain what real mental content is or may serve as a rebuke to the few, as much as it may show some level of common sense, and still not explain the real mental content. The pioneer of educational research, Edward L Tthorndike was a lexicographer and educator. Based on his experiments and statistical investigations, Edward’s three volume book ‘educational psychology’ served as a guide on his work (Lorge, 1949). Despite his simple approach, he was awarded with two research methods needed in modern psychological evaluations of animal conduct: Animal Intelligence, which was the maze and problem box, was created for its present learning (Lorge, 1949). Thorndike was a strict Darwinist who believed animal conduct was a guide to human psychology. In his Harvard studies he replaced human with chickens as subjects. Compared to the tiny psychology that was there in the 1980s, a small size of animal intelligence is a form of the received report and uncontrolled observation that was there in the 1890s.Thorndike observed that, bad methods lead to fazed data and unwarranted interpretations. A higher level of intelligence given to animals by scientists was the most serious error. Thorndike’s research with animals such as, fish, monkeys, cats and dogs, showed him that the learning process did not lie on some form of reasoning or imitation, rather it requires the animal to make more or less random responses, and there should be presence of some situation or stimulus, as such the most accommodative and the right answer is made, for example, reaching for food or hitting a lever to escape a box (Lorge, 1949). An appropriate response creates a reward depending on the effect produced , such as; sex, a feeling of success, food and release of a connection that is neural depending on the situation that provoked it; less appropriate responses may be forgone if repetition of thus or a similar stimulus is easily able to give the previous response. How did Pavlov demonstrate the basic phenomena of conditioning, extinction, generalization, and differentiation? Classical conditioning was discovered by Pavlov almost by accident. The role of salivation in the process of digestion is what he originally wanted to study. The saliva produced by dogs when given meat is what Pavlov measured (Eggen & Kauchak 2007). Days later, into the experiment, he observed that any time the lab attendant would arrive in the lab, the dogs would start salivating, once they saw the meat dish, and before he put the meat into their mouths. Pavlov’s interest was aroused by this and he conducted more experiments, such as sounding a bell before feeding his dogs. The dogs soon began to salivate once they heard the bell, hence in response to a new stimulus ‘the bell’ which under normal times would not arouse salivation, the dogs had been conditioned to do so in response (Eggen & Kauchak 2007). When a similar stimulus to a CS produces the CR, Generalization occurs. Although a student may perform poorly only on a math test, he may generalize his fear to a chemistry or physics exam. Thus the chemistry and physics exam are ulike stimuli to the math test hence producing the CR. The opposite of generalization is discrimination (Eggen & Kauchak 2007). It refers to being able to distinguish between same stimuli. For example, a feeling of fear may arise in a student during a chemistry or physics exam but not a math test. This shows the student is able to differentiate between an appropriate and an inappropriate status to gather a response. The process of not learning a learned response due to the elimination of the original source of that learning is called extinction (Eggen & Kauchak 2007). Classical conditioning is where; extinction is carried out by continuously showing the CS minus the US. Previous CR occurrence is decreased by this action, CR soon disappears. Thus, from the example above the student’s fear of chemistry and physics exam will diminish. Discuss the trends that psychology has in the new millennium Incorporation of social and natural sciences, liberal arts and humanities, in psychology has grown noticeably since its founding. Today, other than being an ally to natural science like chemistry, mathematics, physics and biology, humanities such as music, art, languages and philosophy psychology is also considered as one of the sciences. Most psychologists work with other scientists and scholars on research and other projects in various fields adding to diversity of interests, and creating a modern psychological unit (Santrock, 2008).For example, one psychologist may work with a music or art scholar to try and learn the mental processes that align with creativity, another psychologist will work with a biochemist or neuroscientist to find out the behavioral change and psychological change caused by giving a certain drug, or brain injury, also a psychologist may work with an economist to be able to know how to calculate potential benefits, bad risks for future business enterprises or investments (Santrock, 2008). All three, much as they are psychologists will still be able to venture in other areas of knowledge. Psychology today has moved up further than would have been predicted by the first epistemologists. Today psychology has broadened and various areas of research can be found within it. The main focus here falls on particular aspects in governing and handling psychological traits and behaviors. These categories of research are; physiological, psychometric, developmental, experimental, social, cognitive and personality (Santrock, 2008). To some degree their borders overlap. Developmental psychology mainly involves changes that happen in childhood and adolescence. A wide range of topics are studied such as, language music and math, moral judgment, reasoning skills, the formation of emotional attachments and acquiring problem solving skills. Social psychology involves interaction with other people and can be related to physiological psychology concerned with chemical and biological mechanisms. Neuroscientists are in charge of physiological psychology whose interest lies on emotion or behavior. Cognitive psychology is rooted in problem solving and creativity of certain phenomena (Santrock, 2008). Most psychology research are developing due to modern technologies, new theories developed and hi-tech measurement tools created. The struggle of testing the validity of the various studies is now a thing of the past. Compare and contrast two different schools of psychology Psychoanalysis and behaviorism in relation to social context share important intellectual evolutions. Psychoanalysis first pioneered by Freud was considered in the field of psychology as quite influential. Freud’s great influence came from the likes of Rudolf, Jean-Martin, Charcot and Breuer who shared a common interest on neurotic disorders. Behaviorism on the other hand was largely the utilitarian school of thought production. The difference in behaviorism can be pointed towards Freud’s psychoanalysis as a measure to rank it with the science of biology and physics (Leahey, 2003). Behaviorism is further different from psychoanalysis because its study does not fall under consciousness. Behavior falls under stimuli and reponse where an orgasm behaves in a certain manner after the process of stimulation (Leahey, 2003). While psychoanalysis was affected by certain issues such as anti-Semitism and role of women, the behaviorism approach main impact was a result of John Watson’s express dissatisfaction. According to Pickren (2010), each has different research techniques and adopts different approaches in psychology. For example, in psychoanalysis Freud uses parapraxes, dream analysis and resistance to establish his patient’s case which is not the case in behaviorism. The technique unveiled in psychoanalysis show that behavior cannot be determined from the outer surface. This makes the study of behaviorism as a study of what lies beneath what one can see that is the awareness level (Leahey, 2003).Both behaviorism and psychoanalysis carry a notion of their truth. Freud uses the unconscious to relay the truth in psychoanalysis, meanwhile the behaviorist believe the truth to be what is seen. According to Pickren (2010) psychoanalysis brings out a past truth while behaviorism judges the truth on what is present. Psychoanalysts hold that only when one is subconscious can the truth be revealed unlike behaviorists who discourage reliance on a subconscious mind. Describe the traditional version of the Anna O. Case, what really happened. What really happened? And what did Freud learned from the case (or thought he learned) Anna was a young lady in her 20’s who looked after her father who had tubercular abscess, before she fell ill. It is after her father’s death that he symptoms of her illness started developing gradually. The right side of her body was paralysed, she had difficulties in seeing, language and hearing. Later she began hallucinating and losing consciousness (Hempel, 1980). Breuer put Anna on a form of therapy that he believed would relieve her pain because he believed she was suffering from hysteria. Breuer would induce Anna to explain to him what she hallucinated during daytime and according to him Anna after the session would remain calm and peaceful (Hempel,1980) . Breuer saw this as a way to treat Anna and relieve her of her ‘bad self’ and welcomed the emotional process. Anna described her therapy as a ‘chimney sweeping’ and referred to her therapy as ‘the talking cure. At one point Anna, O. refused to drink anything and would eat melons and fruits to quench her thirst. Bruer kept with the therapy session and in one of the sessions Anna recounted seeing a dog drinking out of a glass and how disgusted she was about it. While still at the hypnosis state she asked for a drink and then woke up (Hempel, 1980). Breuer had little understanding until this incident happened. Bruer from this experience began to administer strong doses of morphine so that Anna could continue talking. Bruer failed to notice that Anna’s hallucination was a cause of the morphine administered. Freud’s psychoanalysis theory was greatly influenced by Anna’s case because he draws most of his argument from what Bruer recounts on Anna’s treatment. According to Freud hysteria can be cured by inducing the patient to recount certain incidents that recreate memories and emotions (Hempel, 1980). The disappearance in some of Anna’s symptoms is what led Freud to describe the therapy used by Bruer as a cure to hysteria. Freud states that the method of talking to patients and leading them to uncover their traumatic pasts in what he refers to as ‘pressure technique’. He believed that whatever the patients saw and talked about during these sessions was what could cure the patient’s. What are the similarities between john Locke’s empiricist ideas and John Watson’s behaviourist ideas? John Watson an American psychologist established the theory of behaviourism after conducting experiments on animals. In his philosophy, Watson took the Darwinian Theory and moulded it into his human mind development approach (Zuriff, 1985). Along his studies Watson adopted the theory of John Locke a psychologist, who believed that the child’s knowledge was acquired through experiences and learning. According to Watson children were their environment’s upbringing. If translated this meant that a child’s behaviour was determined by what knowledge they acquired and the level of exposure. Children become what they are because of the environment they grew up in and the various stimuli that called for response (Zuriff, 1985).He named this philosophy ‘behaviourism’ because; human development depended on the learning and condition process. Watson like Locke believed that the human behaviour is understood through learning and experiences. External behaviour is closely watched during the experiment to discover the reactions in different circumstances (Zuriff, 1985). Both support the philosophical aspects of outward behaviour in human beings challenging the subjectivity of thought. Locke’s empiricists and Watson’s behaviourist ideas were grounded on the fact that man and animal do adjust to their environment and this is made possible by certain stimuli that leads them to a certain response. Watson made these observations by testing animals in the lab and this was meant to target the animal’s behaviour not consciousness. The approach seeks to explain why animals and man behave differently when placed under certain conditions and what triggers the change (Zuriff, 1985). Animals were used to test Watson’s behaviour theory. Both had different approaches but used behaviour as an element to explain human psychology. The different schedules of reinforcement is what separated their ideas however it is well known that John Watson picked Locke’s approach among other theorist and furthered his behaviourist research methods. Compare and contrast Radical behaviourism and Cognitive Science. Cognitive science is a study of emotions and behaviour of individuals when the behaviour pattern is altered (Tolman, 1948). Both theories believe that behaviour learned can have adaptive consequences and both believe the only way to ward off unwanted behaviour is through providing new learning experiences.Behavior can be explained scientifically as maintained by the school of psychology. Radical behaviourism explains that there is no difference between behaviour that is observable expressed by actions and behaviour that cannot be seen such as feelings and thoughts (Tolman, 1948). The study of radical theory can help psychologist study the individual’s body language in cases where the patient does not respond verbally. Cognitive science as stated by Tolman (19948) can also run in situations where the patient is silent because the study enables one to study the patient’s body language. Radical behaviourism seeks to explain that people’s behaviour is shaped by the outward and inside action. Skinner goes a notch higher in including physiological factors while conducting the external tests. Behaviourisms stresses that psychology basically studies the individual’s external rather than internal stability. It looks at how people behave when set in certain conditions and why they behave in that particular manner (Tolman, 1948). In radical behaviorism control and predictions are applied while cognitive science allows the phenomena to take place and later collect data for analysis. Cognitive science seeks to establish a person’s internal state of mind. This study is conducted through a visual process of observing an individual’s body language and memory processing. Cognitive science research according to Tolman, (1948) helps specialist develop cognitive therapy techniques that help in problem solving. Cognitive psychologist establishes symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress and many other conditions. Radical behaviourism on the other hand provides treatment for addictions and phobias as a result of experimental analysis methods employed. How did Skinners approach to science differ from Hull’s and Tolman’s? Burrhus Fredic Skinner commonly referred to as B. F .Skinner was one of the most influential psychologist in the 20th century. Skinner created his own philosophy and named it radical behaviourism. Skinner named this study radical behaviourism because the philosophy was rooted at the science of people’s behaviour. His philosophy states that an individual’s behaviour remains constant across a situation through the same consequences. Behaviour due to its casual nature is bound to be influenced by certain consequences. Skinner box is one of his famous inventions which refer to the operant conditioning chamber. Tolman’s approach is different from Skinner’s because his approach is more holistic in relation to behaviour studies. Tolman’s emphasis on environment unlike the common isolated stimuli, response and atomistic elements (Lewis, 1972). Tolman was a neobehaviorists and referred to these elements as stimulating agencies or behaviour acts. Tolman contributed by arguing that cognition and purpose were empirical factors and needed interpretation as outside observations. Hull was known between the three men to be the most ambitious in relation to constructing a concrete theory. He carried the found philosophy of learning law also known as habit formation and termed it as stimulus generalization (Lewis, 1972). Here a response was triggered by unconventional stimulus and the response would remain the same as long as the stimulus is the same. In Hull’s explanation he sticks to explain how learning takes place in science (Lewis, 1972). In experiments carried out Hull translates the results on facts based on the experiment. The assumptions in this case are relevant and are provided before the conclusion is determined (Lewis, 1972). Ideas associated with the will to learn or soul does not have a place in his philosophy. The connection of psychology, psychiatry, anthropology and sociology is simply explained by the stimulus and response. Discuss Skinner’s two “mistakes” according to Staddon and also discuss Staddon’s criticism of Skinner’s argument against the “autonomous man”. Skinner spent most of his time relating his philosophies and trying to apply issues such as blame, praise, freedom and the design of cultures to everyday life. His arguments were rooted from past behaviour experiments in most cases animals. Staddon comes in to criticize skinner’s fundamentals of operant conditioning. According to Staddon one of Skinner’s mistakes was his denial of the efficacy of punishment (Malone, J. 2009). In Studdon’s point of view Skinner’s relativistic theory is no more than ‘consensually- agreed beliefs’. According to him this theory does not conform to the late twentieth-century. Many people in the community find the dissolution of knowledge liberating making Skinner’s belief unsatisfactory and unnecessary. Skinner’s second error lies in his long erroneous belief that punishment is ineffective and undesirable (Malone, 2009). Skinner states that the more one believes in free will, the more one advocate for punishment. According to Skinner punishment has undesired effects which makes people unhappy. Staddon comes in to criticize Skinner and says his data is misinterpreted and misrepresented. The argument by skinner circulates around the scientific psychology, and this pits the autonomous man. Studdon’s argument against Skinner’s argument in relation to the autonomous man is based on free will (Malone, 2009). Skinner believes that human beings are never free as much as the causes may be far in the past and likely to have influenced the behaviour patterns. Skinner holding that punishment has no place in the justice system is according to Staddon unjustified. Staddon contends that the use of punishment is justified because people are sensitive to contingencies. This means that people’s actions are determined and punishment is a tool to change people’s actions (Malone, 2009). It is believed that order in any society holds individuals to act responsibly. Staddon holds Skinner’s opposition to punishment is an imposture making his theory irrational. References Clay, R. (2002). A Renaissance for humanistic psychology. American psychological association. 33(8); 42. Eggen, P. & Kauchak, D. (2007). Educational psychology windows on classrooms. 7th Ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Hempel, K. (1980). The Logical Analysis of Psychology. Readings in the Philosophy of Psychology, Vol. 1. Ed. N. Block. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980. 15-23. Leahey, T. H. (2003). A history of psychology: Main currents in psychological thought. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Lewis, D. (1972). “Psychophysical and Theoretical Identifications.” Australasian Journal of Philosophy 50 (1972): 207-215. Lorge, I. (1949). "Thorndike's Publications from 1940 to 1949: A Bibliography." Teachers College Record 51 (1):42–45. Malone, J. (2009) Psychology: Pythagoras to present. New York: MIT press Pickren, W. (2010). A History of Modern Psychology in Context. London: John Wiley and Sons Tolman, E. (1948).Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men. Psychological Review 55 (1948): 189-208. Santrock, J. W. (2008). Educational psychology. 3rd ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill Zuriff, G. E. (1985). Behaviourism: A Conceptual Reconstruction. New York: Columbia University Press. Read More