Psychological Theories of Learning - Research Paper Example

? Psychology of Learning In the psychology of learning, a combination of stimulus- response theories can be used to explain why people respond to stimulus and how this can help in the learning process. This paper will focus on how classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and neobehaviorism are applicable in various real lives. Introduction In the psychology of learning, behavioral psychology is highly applicably in several ways. This involves the study of human behavior, which helps develop theories that explain why people respond to various stimuli and how this knowledge can be applied in the learning process (Coon, et al., 2010). According to behaviorists, psychologists should be able to study the behavior by employing various scientific and natural sciences. In this regard, this should be transferred to academic psychology, which largely relies on stimulus response theories. Theories that focus on stimulus response applicable in psychology of learning include operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and neobehaviorism. Principles of classical conditioning One of the aspects of behavioral learning theory is classical conditioning. It is argued that classical conditioning involves a learning process that occurs when associating two events that happen at the same time, usually between a naturally occurring stimulus and an environmental stimulus (Bouton & Moody, 2004). Basic principles of classical conditioning involve; Stimulus generalization- this is a tendency to respond in the same way to a conditioning stimulus (Bouton & Moody, 2004). For example, a child conditioned to fear black dog will always exhibit fear of similar dolls. Discrimination- this is argued to be the opposite of generalization. However, it is believed to be the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimulus initially unpaired with an unconditioned stimulus (Bouton & Moody, 2004). For example, if a dog is conditioned to salivate on a bell sound, it can not salivate to any other sound. Extinction- conditioned response disappears when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (Bouton & Moody, 2004). For example if a dog associates the sound of a bell with food and it happens that the bell is rung repeatedly without providing food, the dog will stop responding to the sound of the bell. Acquisition- this implies that conditioned response is gradual. In the initial stages of trials, there is no conditioned response, but as the number of trials increases, the conditioned response strengthens (Bouton & Moody, 2004). Contributions of the major theorists who worked to develop classical conditioning theory Classical conditioning was primarily endorsed by Ivan Pavlov a Russian psychologist. As he studied digestion in dogs, he introduced a variety of edible and non-edible items to measure saliva production that the items produced (Bouton & Moody, 2004). This is what led to development of classical conditioning theory. During his study, Pavlov discovered that dogs responded to the sight of his research assistant’s white coats, which Pavlov argued the animals developed an associate with the awarding of food. This led to Pavlov continuation of investigation of exactly how conditioned responses are acquired and learned (Coon, et al., 2010). John Watson extended Pavlov’s work in which he applied it to human beings. He studied an 11 month old child. His intention was to condition the child to become afraid of a white rate by pairing it with a very loud, jarring noise. After repeating the pairing the rat with the piercing sound, it is argued that the child became fearful of rats. His experiment induced that classical conditioning could cause some phobia in humans. How classical conditioning accounts for the mental processes associated with learning Behaviorists explain the outcome of classical conditioning in terms of observable conditions of learning. They argue that classical conditioning is a kind of learning through which a certain stimulus evokes the response of another stimulus (Bouton & Moody, 2004). It is also argued that classical conditioning is the learning of relationships among events. The relationships enable organisms to mentally represent their environments and make predictions. In Pavlov’s experimentation, the dog salivated in reaction to the sound because the sound had become mentally connected with the meat (Coon, et al., 2010). In this regard, the cognitive focus is on the information learned by the organism. Classical conditioning’s use of prior experience in explaining how people learn According to classical conditioning theory, learning is viewed as a process. The process involves repeatedly pairing unconditional stimulus with another stimulus (Nevid, 2012). The study of Pavlov’s dog paved way for the learning process though which the process of learning through classic conditioning was discovered. Explanation of classical conditioning on how permanent change in behavior takes place In classical conditioning, conditioned response is a powerful connection, though the results are not permanent (Bouton & Moody, 2004). However, in order to keep the response needed, there is a need to repeat the exposure of the pairing. This is what is referred to as reinforcement. This means that every so often, the person is supposed to be reminded of the involvement between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus. Nevertheless, the reinforcement is not the responsibility of the learner, but that of the trainer. Application of classical conditioning to a real world learning environment Although people do not respond exactly like Pavlov’s dogs, there are several real world applications for classical conditioning. For example, dog trainers can utilize classical conditioning techniques to train their dogs (Nevid, 2012). It is also argued that these techniques are also used in treatment of anxiety and phobias problems (Coon, et al., 2010). In learning, teachers can also apply classical conditioning by creating positive learning environment to help students overcome anxiety and fear. Principles of operant conditioning Classical conditioning is also referred to as instrumental conditioning. This is a method of learning that involves rewards or punishment for behavior (Millon, 2002). It is argued that through operant conditioning, an association is created between behavior and a consequence of that behavior. Operant conditioned was developed by B. F. skinner. He believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be applicable in explaining behavior (Harrison, 2011). He however, thought that external and observable causes should be focused in explaining in explaining human behavior. Major principles of operant conditioning are; Reinforcement- this is argued to be the event that strengthens or increases the behavior. However, there are two kinds of reinforcements: positive reinforcement and negative reinforcements. Positive reinforcers are favorable outcomes that are given after the behavior. In the event of positive reinforcement, a response is strengthened by either a direct reward or praise (Coon, et al., 2010). Negative reinforcers involve the removal of unfavorable stimulus. In such a situation, a response is strengthened by the removal of stimulus considered unpleasant. Punishment- punishment is argued to be the presentation of adverse event that intends to cause a decrease in the behavior it follows. This comes in two forms; positive punishment and negative punishment. Positive punishment involves reduction of deeds by presenting an unlikable stimulus when the conduct happens. Negative punishment on the other hand involves removing a pleasant stimulus when the behavior occurs (Harrison, 2011). Contributions of the major theorists who worked to develop operant conditioning B.F Skinner is known for his contribution in the field of behaviorism. Operant conditioning is a term used by Skinner to differentiate it from Pavlov’s classical conditioning theory. Operant conditioning deals with learned, but not reflective behavior articulated in classical conditioning (Millon, 2002). Skinner believed that the best way to understand behavior is to focus on the cause of an action and its consequences. This approach is what he termed as operant conditioning. However, his work was based on the work of Edward Thorndike. Thorndike studied learning in animals using a puzzle box to come up with a theory known as law of effect (Coon, et al., 2010). In fact, Skinner’s work is based on the law of effect where he argued that reinforcement behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated while one which is not reinforced tends to be eliminated. How operant conditioning accounts for the mental processes associated with learning Although Skinner’s components of operant conditioning theory does not directly deal with mental processes, it is believed that his focus on behavioral change concept forms part of how the mind is structured to change as a result of environmental conditions (Melucci, 2004). In fact, it is argued that the cognitive process presented by Skinner analyzes the internal or mental learning. The ability for individuals to respond to change of stimulus is part of mental learning. Application of operant conditioning to a real world learning environment When considering learner’s characteristics, teachers are obliged to look at individual differences and motivation for different students (Nevid, 2012). It is argued that when students are rewarded for good performance, they tend to perform better. Operant conditioning is also argued to help shape behaviors of people with unruly behaviors. For example, when people are punished for committing a crime, they tend to deviate from committing a crime for fear of such consequences. However, behaviors of people can also be corrected by rewarding good behaviors (Nevid, 2012). This encourages people to continue doing good things. Principles of neobehaviorism Neobehaviorism proposed that behavior can scientifically be tested and explained (Millon, 2002). Neobehaviorism argues that behaviors occur in response to a given stimuli and the future behaviors are subsequently shaped by the response. Using unconscious perception analysis, neobehaviorists believe that when people receive a response to their behaviors, they register them, hold them briefly and then analyze them perceptually (Coon, et al., 2010). This means that these responses are noted mentally. It is also argued that the perceptual analyses are stored in the memory. The results of the response are retrieved from people’s memory in order to execute behavior (Millon, 2002). However, the response depends on whether the memory entails positive or negative reinforcement. Neobehaviorism was endorsed by psychologist B.F. Skinner. In order to demonstrate how behavior can be explained, Skinner devised Skinner box, in which he demonstrated how animals responded to rewards. In essence, this involved rewarding an animal for acts of lifting its head on top of a given line. In this regard, neobehaviorism proposed that positive reinforcement takes place when a pleasant consequence follows a given behavior, while a negative reinforcement takes place when a given behavior is changed as a result of removal of unpleasant stimuli (Millon, 2002). Therefore, neobehaviorism believes that punishment is designed in such a way that it decreases the frequency of a specific response by administering aversive stimuli. Just like behavioristic position from which neobehaviorism was derived, neobehavioristic view focuses on environmental instigated responses. However, it is apparent that mentalistic concept is also incorporated in the cognitive phenomena (Coon, et al., 2010). Neobehaviorim’s view of learning is that discovery and reception is part of the learning process. To explain how learning occurs, neobehaviorists proposed that an organism could have inmate approach which could be stronger than the tendency to avoid. The works of Skinner is known for its application in the real world through fields of industrial and organizational psychology, behavioral medicine among many others (Melucci, 2004). In behavior therapy, neobehaviorism can be used to change behaviors of mentally ill persons. On the other hand, neobehavioristic approach on learning is applicable in several ways. When deciding the best approach to use when teaching different students, evidence can be drawn from behavioral actions (Coon, et al., 2010). When giving answers to questions, students who score low marks or perform poorly have an opportunity of getting better grades. When they get responses of poor performance from their teachers, this helps them avoid erroneous Reponses. Conclusion Classical conditioning- Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs when associating two events that happen at the same time, usually between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. Principles of classical conditioning are stimulus generalization, discrimination, extinction, and acquisition. Classical conditioning was first discovered by Ivan Pavlov, and his works later extended by John Watson. Theorists of classical conditioning argue that classical conditioning is a form of learning in which one stimulus evoke the response of another stimulus. The study of Pavlov’s dog paved way for the learning process though which the process of learning through classic conditioning was discovered. In classical conditioning, conditioned response is a powerful connection, though the results are not permanent. Classical conditioning can be applied by dog trainers and also in learning, whereby classical conditioning techniques can be used by students to overcome anxiety. Operant conditioning- This is a method of learning that involves rewards or punishment for behavior. When operant conditioning is applied, an association is created between a deed and an effect of that deed. Principles of operant conditioning are reinforcement, and punishment. Reinforcement involves positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Punishment involves positive punishment and negative punishment. B.F Skinner developed operant conditioning as a way of differentiating Pavlov’s classical conditioning. Operant conditioning deals with learned, but not reflective behavior articulated in classical conditioning. However, Skinner’s work was based on the work of Edward. Thorndike. The cognitive process presented by Skinner analyzes the internal or mental learning. Operant conditioning can be applied in the real world practices. In learning, when students are rewarded for good performance, they tend to perform better. Operant conditioning is also argued to help shape behaviors of people with unruly behaviors. Neobehaviorism-Neobehaviorism proposed that behavior can scientifically be tested and explained. Neobehaviorists believe that when people receive a response to their behaviors, they register them, hold them briefly and then analyze them perceptually. Neobehaviorism was endorsed by psychologist B.F. Skinner. Neobehaviorism proposed that positive reinforcement takes place when a pleasant consequence follows a given behavior, while a negative reinforcement takes place when a given behavior is changed as a result of removal of unpleasant stimuli. Neobehaviorism is known for its application in the real world through fields of industrial and organizational psychology, behavioral medicine among many others. It can also be used to change behaviors of mentally ill persons and in teaching. References: Bouton, M. & Moody, E. (2004). Memory processes in classical conditioning. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 28: 663–674. Coon, D., et al. (2010). Introduction to psychology: gateways to mind and behavior. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Harrison, B. (2011). Power and society: an introduction to the social sciences. Australia; Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Melucci, N. (2004). Psychology the easy way. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Barron's Educational Series. Millon, T. (2002). Handbook of Psychology, Volume 5, Personality and Social Psychology: Volume 5, Personality and Social Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Nevid, J. (2012). Psychology: concepts and applications. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Rathus, S. Psych. (20121). Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth; Andover: Cengage Learning. Read More