Three Fundamental Theories of Learning - Essay Example

Technology and Education Contents Introduction The Theories 3 The Comparison 8 The Analysis 13 Conclusion 17 References: 18 Introduction Technology permeates every structure of society. Its influence continues to transform human interactions and the human way of life (Artman and Person 2010; Collins and Harverson 2010). In effect, it continues to re-define and re-shape human society as technology in general and information and communication technology in particular keep on creating platforms for human interactions and exchanges. In this context, the impact of technology to education becomes far more reaching and meaningful. This is maintained on the premise that the encounter between technology and education has transformed these two ‘forces’ in such a way that technology and education have become inherently connected as technology becomes the educational tool empowering both the students and the teacher (Branson 2000). In this regard, several studies have been undertaken in order to understand further the extant of the impact and connection between technology and education (e.g. Lambert et al. 2002; Miners and Pascopella 2007; Wetzel et al 2008). On the other hand, this study will delve deeper into the issue of the connection between technology and education by critically evaluating the supposition how theories of learning inform the use of technology to improve student learning. This study is essential as it looks into theories and paradigms explaining the connection between the uses of technology and improve student learning. It clarifies the connection between technology and student learning by removing the notion, that implementation of technology in classroom pedagogy is a mere fad or trend in learning, while edifying the necessity of technology in education. In addition, this study is significant as it focuses on the theories. It addresses the ‘why’ question by articulating on the ‘how’ question. This provides a clearer perspective on the intricate, yet, inherent connection between technology and education. Finally, this study is vital as it can help in gaining a deeper understanding of the connection between technology and education. The paper will be divided into five sections. The first section is the introduction wherein the background of the study, the focus of research, and it significance and the structure of the paper are given. It guides the reader as to what may be expected from the entire study. The second section deals with the various learning theories. Discussion of constructivism, behaviourism, and audio-visual theories will be undertaken. These theories of learning provide a solid framework in which to understand the connection between use of technology and student-learning improvement. The third section will centre in laying down the advantages, limitations, and impact of the theories of learning to the integration of technology to education. This section highlights the presupposition that as each theory explains the reality of technology in education, its influence on the actual integration of technology in education varies. The fourth section will deal with the analysis. In this part of the paper, BF Skinner’s behaviourism will be given more focus. Finally, the last segment of the paper will be the conclusion wherein the summary of the discussion as well as the position of the paper pertinent to the issue raise in this study will be given. In the end, theories of learning, especially behaviourism establishes a framework where technology becomes the tool, not just in learning but also in developing and re-enforcing positive behaviours towards learning. The Theories Three fundamental theories of learning will be discussed in this paper, namely, constructivism, audio-visual theories, and behaviourism. The selected theories provide an opportunity to see the theories of learning within a spectrum with constructivism on one side and behaviourism on the other end. Meanwhile, audio-visual theories present developments in technology have effect learning as it is integrated in classroom pedagogy. In effect, constructivism and behaviourism are grouped together as they look into the person, while, audio-visual theories focus on the developed technologies integrated in classroom pedagogy. Constructivism espouses the idea that learning, knowledge, and education is a dynamic function, constructed around the context of the person, thus, giving prominence on the ‘situated condition’ of the person, which is both internal and external to the person (Boudourides 2003). Central in the constructivism is the integral role of the person as an active participant in the construction of knowledge. In effect, learning becomes a dynamic process because the emphasis is given on the learners’ active processing of stimuli coming from the environment. It affords a shift in focus on learning since it directs its attention towards the person learning rather than on the methodologies adopted in order to learn. This view of constructivism is deemed as liberating because it is cognizant of the central importance of the human person in the process of learning (Wertsch and Bivens 1992). The active participation in the construction of what is knowledge reframes pursuit of knowledge from the perspective of the pursuer – the person. Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, and Lev Vygotsky are some of the most theorists espousing constructivism. However, it should be noted that although they support constructivism in general, their respective approach and focus on the theory is variegated. Piaget highlights the intra development of the person as the critical and focal point in learning. As there are different frameworks of knowledge, various stages of intellectual development intrinsic in the person also undergo transformation (see Piaget 1970). In effect, the “individual mind is readily seen as the initiating agent of constructive and reconstructive change” (Lawrence and Valsiner 1993, p. 165). On the other hand, Bruner claims that knowledge is drawn from the past and present knowledge of the learner. This is done by adopting the Socratic Method discussed by Plato. As such, it has been claimed that crucial to Bruner’s theory of constructivism is the role of communication. It has been ascertained that through exchanges and discourses transpiring between the teacher and the learner, the student becomes an active participant in the search for knowledge. An activity that is made more meaningful as it is pursued with the learner at his own phase. Finally, Vygotsky places a primordial significance to social interaction in the acquisition of learning. The movement of learning is from external to internal, “Every function in the childs cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals." (Vygotsky 1978, p. 57). In addition, Vygotsky holds cognitive development can be achieved within a limited time span, which is called ‘zone of proximal development (ZPD)’. Under ZPD, the quality of human interaction afforded or undertaken by the individual is determinative of the cognitive development of the person. As such, language and communication in Vygotsky’s theory of learning becomes an indispensable tool that will enable the person to be engaged in social interactions (Vygotsky 1978, p 85 -86). In effect, the interaction between the adult and the student/child in the school setting becomes ‘learning opportunities’ attained by the student as the schools provides the social environment wherein such interaction becomes a reality. Figure 1 The Constructivist Continuum Piaget, Bruner Vygotsky This figure shows that despite support for constructivist theory of learning the scholars do not approach the theory from a single point, but have created diversified points in which the significance of the theory provides a frame in which to understand the concept of learning. On the hand, behaviourism is another theory of learning that has an enormous impact in the handling of subjects in classroom pedagogy. Generally, behaviourism supports the idea that behaviour is a response to a particular stimulus. In learning, this implies that learning is the re-enforcement of positive behaviours, and this can be achieved by laying down the conditions that will capture the positive response from the students and minimise the negative response from them. In this perspective, the learner is presented as responding to a particular stimulus given by the teacher and the teacher is actively participating in choosing and implementing the conditions that will evince the expected positive behaviour. Pavlov’s experiments on dogs gave raised to what is termed as classical conditioning and developed the stimulus-response psychology (S-R psychology). It presented the idea that specific stimulus evinced a particular response. In this sense, response could be controlled when stimulus are selected on the premise of foresighted response to it. In fact, in learning this approach has been adopted in controlling or even eliminating deviant behaviour (Taylor et al. 2004). In the same manner, Thorndike in studying animal behaviour and intelligence came up with the notion that behaviour can be gained by looking into stimulus, response and their connection. His experiments provided education with the first scientific experiments on education. He maintained that three laws govern learning, and these are the laws of effect, the law of readiness, and the law of exercise. His influence in education is far and wide in the segments of learning, teaching, and evaluation of teaching effectiveness (Taylor et al. 2004). Watson is known as the father of contemporary behaviourism. He is heavily influenced by Pavlov and Thorndike and have developed two laws namely the law of frequency and the law of recency, which highlighted the importance of timing in learning. In addition, Watson denied the validity of the claim that hereditary factors play a significant role in behaviour and learning. BF Skinner, the one who construed radical behaviourism looked at voluntary behaviours by focusing on the consequence. His behaviourism challenges many espoused beliefs such as freedom and dignity as he maintains that behaviour can be constructed in such a way that it can be selected and strengthened by consequences (Skinner 1985). This means that behaviour can be shaped and modified following timing, consistency, and effectiveness of re-enforcement (Taylor et al. 2004). Skinner has removed the enigma of unobservable behaviour by providing viable approaches that can shape and modify behaviour. Skinner’s influenced in education is, indubitably, extensive and thorough. His influenced on behaviour analysis, program development, teaching machine, and programmed learning have influenced contemporary education, so much so, despite criticisms against behaviourism, it is still found at the core of classroom management and project implementation (Psychology of Learning 4). Finally, audio-visual communication theories highlight the continued significance of the integration of communication technologies in classroom pedagogy. Its effect is dependent on the conditions in which it is applied like the size, subject matter, and the personality of the teacher. In effect, what has been crucial in the discourses is the notion that these gadgets have made teaching approach more innovative and creative, thus giving higher changes in reaching more students with unique and different learning approaches. However, it should be noted that Hattie (2009) has found out that there is small but significant positive impact from audiovisual effects. Nonetheless, this should not serve as a deterrent in using audiovisual effects in pedagogy, especially now that there are many technologies at the disposal of the teacher. The Comparison Various theories in learning provide the ground in which understanding the connection between students, teachers, educational institution, environment, and other factors that may influence the learning of students. In this section, constructivism and behaviourism will be compared. This will help in gaining a better understanding of the two theories of learning that are often pitted against each other. Constructivism gives emphasis on the essential connection between the person and the society in the process of learning. Its advantages include: (1) it places at the centre of learning the notion students are active participants in learning (2) It emphasises the idea that learning is approached from various angles and that there is no one definitive way in which learning is attained. The individuality and uniqueness of the context of students and teachers are given genuine consideration. (3) It allows for the flourishing of the student at their own phase, thus recognising and respecting the intrinsic differences existing among persons. (4) It affirms the essential connection between social interaction and learning. As such, it recognises the truism that learning does not in a vacuum, but it is concretely situated in an actual society. (5) It recognises one of the attributes of contemporary society – pluralism. However, there are observable limitations with constructivism. These are (1) it does not contradict relativism. (2) It implicitly asserts the power of society in shaping behaviour and learning. (3) It can enhance cultural differences, as the role of society is critical in learning. (3) It can further the technological divide between the North and South countries. These observed advantages and limitations of constructivism have an impact in theories of learning, especially in the use of technology and student learning. Constructivism has created the platform wherein the technological divide among students can be bridged. More than that, via constructivism, curriculum has been transformed in such a way that it is student centred. For instance, in Math, soft wares are available that will help students study mathematical concepts and take exercises within their own phase. In addition, the Internet provides the virtual platform wherein students can discuss with other students critical issues and topics that are crucial to their learning. Likewise, technology has created the learning setting wherein students can search and study further the subject matter. As such, students are given the opportunity to see and read real experiences of people around the world, handle real data, thus gain a better understanding of the current human condition. Moreover, through technology, communications between teachers and parents become more open and accessible, thus creating a forum wherein stakeholders of children’s education can establish a more collaborative action in furthering children’s education. In this regard, technology is contextualised, as it is perceived to be a powerful instrument students and teachers use as they try to gain deeper insights and knowledge on classroom topics (Fox 2009). On the other hand, behaviourism focuses on the connection among behaviour, technology, and learning within the context of consequence of the behaviour. Skinner is considered as radical among scholars who are espousing the ideals of behaviourism. This is claimed on the premise that he supported the notion that voluntary actions can also be conditioned by developing a systematic approach of ‘rewards system’ (Skinner, 1972; 1985). This shows that as behaviour is conditioned, it is not only limited to involuntary responses that highlight the mechanistic link between stimulus and response, but it also covers voluntary actions. This gives emphasis to one immensely significant component of behaviourism – the mechanism of positive change. One of the major objectives of education is to assist in the transformation of the behaviour of students so that they will become citizens equip with the necessary skills, values, and attitudes in facing the demands of society as the good life is pursued. The changes envisioned by educational objectives cover the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains of the human person (Psychology of Learning, p 2). In effect, education endeavours for a holistic development of the student. Skinner’s behaviourism in particular and behaviourism have developed the theoretical and empirical basis for the effectiveness of behaviourism in achieving positive change in behaviour via education. They have created programmed learning that enhances the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor development of the student. The program re-enforces positive behaviours while it denigrates negative behaviours. This establishes clear-cut parameters that will assist educators assess the progress of the students, their progress, and the effectiveness of the program. In effect, behaviourism generates a solid frame and system in which education as an agent of transformation is actualised. The reality, which behaviourism helps form is essential in education as it (1) serves as ethos in the development of educational programs and instructional designs. (2) It tackles complexity in such a way that it identifies the possible range of difficulties that educational programs may use. (3) It assists in the development of mastery in learning. (4) It aids in the development of the both the educator and students as it will require educators to obtain the necessary and sufficient knowledge in implementing the stipulated educational program or design. (5) It helps in “establishing internal consistency” (Psychology of Learning, p. 10) and affords the medium in which the objectives are attained. (6) It gives a definitive way in which the objectives of the design or program may be evaluated. (7) It aids educators in challenging and developing themselves. Since, the educators can always check their own behaviours whether it is contributing to the realisation of the program or not. Finally, (8) it poses a constant challenge to the educators on how they can adopt the behavioural objectives vis-a-vis the face phase changes in education, society, and the world. In this regard, behaviourism provides the fundamental framework wherein the function of education becomes empirically evident and theoretically sound. This is exceedingly crucial in the face of the reality that some disadvantage students questions the validity of continuing education or even having education. However, it has to be recognised that there are identified downsides in lieu of behaviourism. These are (1) it fails to consider the active participation of the students in the process of learning (Hansen 2000). Under behaviourism, the students become passive learners and receivers of the established programs. It falls short in considering the student as a person. (2) It is manipulative. It sets the stage on what can be known, how it can be known, who are capable of knowing, who can deliver, and what can be delivered. (3) It furthers the tyranny of the society in such a way that it perpetuates what the society holds as good and dissuades what it deems as inappropriate. (4) It downplays creativity and innovation in learning (Dewey 1938). (5) It can impede the motivation to teach (on the part of educators) and to learn (on the part of students), since, there is an increased tendency in focusing on the attainment of the objectives and diminished attention on the student and the educator as a person. Nonetheless, despite the identified drawbacks of behaviourism, it cannot be denied that behaviourism is pivotal in education as it plays a vital role in the development of educational programs, policies, and designs. In addition, it facilitates the formation of objectives promoting the ethos and purposes of education. Moreover, it helps in the evaluation of the educational programs and policies as it lays down concrete approaches in the achievement of the programs. In this sense, it can be inferred that both constructivism and behaviourism as theories of learning accounts for the authenticity of the principles and context of learning and education. However, it has been observed that the polarisation of the two theories have produced divergent positions pertaining to the ‘more’ effective theory in explaining the reality of education. Nonetheless, what cannot be denied is the supposition that both theories have been efficient in clarifying not only how learning happens, but also the conditions necessary for learning to happen. The Analysis In this section, the discussion will centre on the Skinner’s behaviourism. This is in view of the fact that part of the current discourses in neuroscience manifests that behaviour is a component of the internal functions of the human mind (Purves 2008). In this sense, a closer look in Skinner’s behaviourism may shed a better understanding on how learning and behaviour establish a circular relationship. Circular because learning is intended to modify behaviour and as behaviour is modified, learning is continuously transformed to meet the increasing level of knowledge of the student while being consistent with the objectives of the educational program. The Skinner Box works on the premise that behaviour can be shaped or engineered by using the appropriate tools and technologies. A favourable behaviour is immediately reinforced through rewards and it undertaken on a continuous schedule. On the other hand, unfavourable behaviour is extinguished on the premise that does not receive any reinforcement (Psychology of Learning 2, p. 4). Applying this principle in the educational set up, it simply means that favourable behaviour of the students are recognised and rewarded, while unfavourable attitude are not rewarded and as such extinguished. This is applied in school. The system of giving awards such as ‘best in conduct’, most obedient, most silent, most active, most participative, most improved, and other similar awards are given to students both as a recognition and reinforcement of good behaviour. Names of the best students are posted on the board to recognise their efforts and so that other students may emulate them. This directly deals with behaviour. In terms of actual subject matter or topics in class, the application of technology in pedagogy is performed in order to (1) enhance classroom discussion (Hall 2010) (2) avail of the new technologies (Hall 2010) (3) enhance the learning of the students (Holbrok 2009) (4) attain the objectives of the curriculum or program (Hill and Smith 2005). The most common example that is used is the application of program learning in mathematics. Students are encouraged to use mathematical software in studying mathematics. Every right answer given by the student is given a star. On the other hand, if the student continues to give a wrong answer, the student will not given any rewards, will not be leaving the question, and there are some programs wherein they are criticised if they continue to give the wrong answer. All of these approaches are similar to the Skinner Box. The methodology or manner of presenting it may vary, but the underlying principle is still the same – rewards for good behaviour and non-response for inappropriate behaviour. This approach is very effective in changing the mindset of students regarding mathematics. It has made math fun and not so threatening. Since, traditionally, math has been presented as overwhelming and very difficult. However, with programmed learning, wherein students are given graduated difficulties as they train in mathematics and at the same time being instantly rewarded in every right answers and being stuck in a question (which is very frustrating but still challenging for students) for every wrong answer, have transformed the mind set and behaviour of many students towards mathematics. With the programmed learning in mathematics, they have come to realise and see that mathematics is not as difficult as it seems. It is simply challenging. Another important development is the adoption of technology in geography class. Before, when studying geography, students were limited to maps. It was very abstracted from the experiences of the students. However, with technology in geography students have learned how to be comfortable with computers. They have learned the reality of other countries. More than that, they have developed critical thinking regarding issues pertinent to environment and socio-cultural issues that are encountered in online discussions with other nationalities. These examples are concrete manifestation of the adoption and implementation of technology in classroom pedagogy. However, it is not just availing of current technologies for classroom discussions, but the curriculum is designed to bring geography closer to students. It is intended to remove the perception that the subject matter is boring and that it has nothing to do with the lives of the students. This has been achieved. In this regard, it can be inferred that technologies together with programmed learning, have successfully transformed the perception of the students regarding mathematics and geography. With technology in classroom pedagogy, these subject matters considered as boring and difficult have been changed into interesting and practical topics. Thus, again, technology and change in the curriculum have been used in order to alter the behaviour of the students and it has effectively transformed the students. The transformation of the students is evidence not only by increased interest in the subject matter, but is also manifested by the high scores students are getting in examinations. The Skinner Box has created the opening wherein the possibility of influencing and shaping behaviours has become actualised. The experiment has shown important elements that are necessary for shaping behaviour – stimulus, reinforcement, rewards, consistency over time, and negation of negative behaviour. It has been criticised as being mechanistic and it fails to recognise the humanity of the humanity of the students. However, looking at the experiment and the intention of learning, it can be deduced that Skinner is not treating students as similar to animals but, perhaps, analogous to animals in terms of learning. It is applying an ingenious process to human learning and its advancement. The application of technology and the creation of programs of learning geared towards mastery of learning have provided theoretical and empirical means in which learning can be achieved. Skinner’s behaviourism has provided the paradigm wherein learning has been pulled down from ‘intellectualism’ to something that is concrete, rooted in life, and involved. The researcher maintains that Skinner’s behaviourism necessitates involvement both from the teacher and from the student for it to be effective. For students to learn, they must actively participate and respond to the stimulus given to them. Even their non-response is deemed as a response since reinforcement or non-reinforcement is immediate. In this sense, Skinner’s behaviourism attests to the reality that education is a two way process that requires the involvement of the parties. In addition, it shows that education does not happen in a vacuum. In fact, implicit in Skinner’s behaviourism is the role of society. Education as a social institution perpetuates the positive behaviour affirmed by society. This is a facet of Skinner’s behaviourism that is worth looking, since; the theory affirms the inherent role of society in the engineering of human behaviour. Conclusion Various theories have been forwarded to explain learning. Each theory is trying to account not only the process of learning, but also the effects and consequences of education to human nature. Social constructivism, behaviourism, and other theories attempt to explain the reality and conditions of education. The paper has provided a very brief elucidation of some of the theories of learning. It has been observed that there seems to be a divide between constructivism and behaviourism. Although this is understandable in the light of the differences in the theoretical foundation, the possibility of reading Skinner as saliently constructivist is possible. This is maintained on the presupposition that Skinner assumes the inherent role of society in learning. He does not hold that humans are the same with animals in learning, but the process in which humans learn may be analogous to animal learning. This is an ingenious approach in understanding learning. In effect, to understand learning is to understand all the conditions in learning. Skinner’s behaviourism has paved for the clarification of one of the tenets of learning – learning transforms human behaviour for a better human life and an improved human condition. References: Artman, H. & Persson, M. (2010). Old practices - new technology: Observations of how established practices meet new technology. In R. Dieng, A. Giboin, L. Karsentry and G. De Michelis (eds) Designing Cooperative systems: The Use of Theories and Models – Proc. Of the 5th Int Conf. on the Design Cooperative Systems(COOP 2000), 35 – 39. Amsterdam: IOS Press. Boudourides, MA. (2003), ‘Constructivism, education, science, and technology,’ Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 23(3). Retrieved from http://www.cjlt.ca/index.php/cjlt/article/viewArticle/83/77 Accessed on 10 December 2012. Collins, A & Halverson, R. (2010). ‘The second educational revolution: rethinking education in the age of technology’, Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26, 18 – 27. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York, NY: Touchstone. Fox, C. (2009). More than machines. T.H.E. Journal 36 (6). Retrieved from ERIC database. (EJ850560) Hansen, R. (2000). The role of experience in learning. Giving meaning and authenticity to the learning process in schools. Journal of Technology Education 11(2), 23-32. Hattie, J. (2008) Visible Learning - A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. London: Routledge. Hall, G E. (2010). ‘Technology’s Achilles Heel: Achieving high-quality implementation’, Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 42(3), 231 – 253. Hill, A, & Smith, HA. (2005). ‘Research in purpose and value for the study of technology in secondary: A theory of authentic learning’, International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 15, 19–32. Holbrook, J. (2009). ‘Meeting challenges to sustainable development through Science and Technology education’, Science Education International, 20(1/2), 44 – 59. Lambert, J., Gong, Y., & Cuper, P. (2008). Technology, transfer, and teaching: The impact of a single technology course on preservice teachers’ computer attitudes and ability. Journal of Technology and Teacher Evaluation, 16(4), 385-410. Retrieved from ERIC database. (EJ809556) Lawrence, J., & Valsiner, J. (1993). Conceptual roots of internalization: From transmission to transformation. Human Development, 36, 150-167. Miners, Z. & Pascopella, A. (2007, October). The NEW literacies. District Administration, 26-34. Retrieved from Education Research Complete. (AN 27024204) Piaget, J. (1970). Piaget’s theory. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichaels’ manual of child psychology (3rd ed.) (Vol. I), New York: Wiley. Pascopella, A. (2008, May). Web Tools: The second generation. The shifting landscape of Web 2.0 technologies. Retrieved from http://www.districtadministration.com/viewarticlepf.aspx?articleid=1584 Purves, D. (2008). Neuroscience. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer,. Prin Skinner, B.F. (1985). ‘Cognitive science and behaviorism’, British Journal of Psychology, 76, 291 – 301. ---. (1972). Beyond freedom and dignity. New York: Bantam Book. Taylor, GR & McKenney, L (2004), Improving human learning in the classroom: theories and teaching practices, New York: Rowman & Littlefield Education. Vygotsky, L (1978), ‘Interaction between learning and development’, In L.Vygotsky, Mind in society, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Wertsch, J., & Bivens, J. (1992). The social origins of individual mental functioning: Alternatives and perspectives. The Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, 14(2), 35-44. Wetzel, K., Foulger, T., & Williams, M. (2008-2009, Winter). The evolution of the required educational technology course. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 25(2), 67-71. Retrieved from ERIC database. (EJ834102) Bibliography (I have to write it here because I do not know the source but we have used these materials) Computer Based Learning Psychology of Learning: Improving pupil Performance 2 ‘The Art of Teaching and the Science of Learning Psychology of Learning: Improving pupil Performance 3 ‘Behavioural objectives and systematic instruction Psychology of Learning: Improving pupil Performance 4 ‘Mastering Learning’ Social Constructivism: Thought, Culture & Cognitive Models The effectiveness of social media Read More