Structure, Model, Concept and Functions of the Family - Essay Example

?Definition, Structure, and Functions of Family 0 Introduction Family serves as the primary unit of society as it facilitates socialisation, regulates sexual behavior, and ensures the proliferation of human species. However, its definition is still shrouded in uncertainty (Knox & Schacht, 2012, p.7). Thus, this paper sought to present the different definitions of family. In addition, it outlines the essential role of family in the society. This paper also presents the different theoretical approaches of family including the functionalist perspective, conflict/feminist perspective, symbolic interactionist, and postmodernist. Then, it delves into how family in the western society evolved. This paper also provides a cultural comparison of family in Nigeria and U.K. Lastly, it tackles on attachment and physical and mental health as the issues confronting families in Nigeria and U.K. This paper is driven to provide an in-depth look at the most important institution in the society. 2.0 Definitions of Family The definition of what is considered as a family is still shrouded in uncertainty. Family is defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as two or more individuals who are related by marriage, blood, or adoption (Knox, & Schacht, 2012, p.7). The Family International (TFI) accordingly defined family as a unit of individuals connected by genealogical links or in a manner which legally and morally replicates these genealogical links such as adoption (Corbett, 2004, p.3). Few individuals disagreed with such definition in the past as divorce; single-parent families and cohabitation were uncommon. However, the current growth of divorce, single-parents families, and couples who live together without marriage impelled numerous individuals to challenge this definition. They reiterated that such definition is a form of discrimination as it excludes long-term couples and foster families who live together (Corbett, 2004, p.3). Another question arises pertaining to how family can be differentiated to other social groups. Klein and White (1996) reiterated that family last for longer period of time compared to other social group. In addition, these researchers stressed that families are intergenerational. The issue of providing an agreed upon definition of family arises as access to social security, retirement benefits, and health benefits are involved. Those who cohabit are not considered as family, and they are not accorded with retirement benefits, health benefits, and social security of the partner (Knox & Schacht, 2012, p.7). There are instances when a partner, who is gay or live-in partner, is not given permission to visit a loved one in the hospital as visitation is limited to “family only.” Some argued that family should be defined by function instead of structure (Knox & Schacht, 2012, p.7). I personally think that it is more appropriate to define family according to its functions; however, a new issue of where the boundary begins and ends may arise due to such definition. 3.0 The role of family in the Society The family is viewed as the basic social institution as it functions for socialisation and procreation (Knox & Schacht, 2012, p.7). Family enables the children to be productive members of the society. The children learn social mores and values through the family. They behave and dress according to the norms of the society due to influence of the family. Zastrow (2008) further reiterated that the family serves as the main institution that rears the children. This institution provides the necessary emotional support, positive recognition, and affection for individuals to function well in the society. The physical, intellectual, social, and emotional growth of an individual is thwarted or stunted without such recognition and affection. Zartrow (2008) also reiterated that family is a unit wherein life is created. Recent functions of a family are classified into three categories, namely: socialization of children, economic cooperation, and affection (cited in Whedon & Wujcik, 1997). Tischler (2010, p.269) further asserted that family regulates sexual behavior. Society prohibits random sexual behaviour. Incest taboo is present in all societies as it functions to restrict sexual intercourse between closely related individuals. Incest rules forbid children and parents, and brothers and sisters to engage in sexual intercourse. Marriage between sisters and brothers, children and parents, grandchildren and grandparents, nieces and uncles are strongly prohibited in many societies (Tischler, 2010, p.269). 4.0 Theoretical Approaches of Family 4.1 Functionalist Perspective This perspective views society as set of social institutions, which operate to ensure consensus and continuity. The functionalist perspective asserts that the family performs essential tasks, which contribute to the basic needs of the society and assist to perpetuate the social order (Giddens, 1989, p.238). It maintains the well-being of individuals and stability of the society. Durkheim (cited in Kendall, 2012, p.439) believed that division of labor between individuals contributes to the efficiency in different areas of life. Parsons (cited in Kendall, 2012, p.439), a prominent figure, who develop the functionalist’s model of family in the U.S., reiterated that the husband fulfills the instrumental role while the wife fulfills the expressive role (cited in Kendall, 2012, p.439). He asserted that the husband mainly functions to meet the economic needs of the family and make important decisions. Meanwhile, the wife is relegated with the responsibility of rearing the children and maintaining the household (cited in Kendall, 2012, p.439; Chapman & Hockey, 1999). Parson’s views may be regarded as outdated and inadequate in the current times. Some individuals claimed that it justifies the division of labor between husbands and wives as something unproblematic and completely natural. Yet, Parson’s views of a family are somewhat understandable in the light of the historical context of its conception (Giddens, 1989, p.238). 4.2 Conflict/Feminist Perspective This perspective views conflict as a source of social inequality. It stresses that family helps perpetuate social inequalities based on gender and class (Kendall, 2012, p.422). Contrary to functionalist perspective, it asserts that behaviors and practices within the family may not foster the well-being of all family members. It argued that what may be deemed as beneficial to one family member may not be good to another (Lamanna & Riedmann, 2008, p.35). Conflict/Feminist perspective is drawn from the views of Karl Marx. However, it was Friedrich Engels, who applied this view to the family. He attributed marital problems to the presence of class inequality in the capitalist society. Variations of conflict/feminist perspective emerged, yet gender issues remain its central focus. It continued to stress that the dominance of men in the society and family is oppressive to women (Lamanna & Riedmann, 2008, p.35). This perspective shed light to the experiences of some women in the family. It highlights the presence of marital rape, child abuse, wife abuse, and some other forms of domestic violence within the family sphere. Social scientists argued that such behaviors exist for eons, yet they were not considered or remarked as social problems (Lamanna & Riedmann, 2008, p.35). Conflict/Feminist perspective also emphasises the unequal division of labor in the family. It further highlighted the oppressive nature of the traditional stereotypical role of man and woman (Lamanna & Riedmann, 2008, p.35). 4.3 Psychoanalysis Freud (cited in Elliot & Frosh, 1995, p.191) reiterated that a family serves as the nucleus of all social engagements. Similar to Functionalist perspective, Psychoanalysis considers family as essential in individual development. Freud asserted that human beings possess particular instincts (H. Goldenberg & I. Goldenberg, 2008, p.160). They are inherently driven to satisfy their biological needs for warmth, food, and shelter. Freud claimed that satisfaction of these biological needs engenders a sense of sexual pleasure (H. Goldenberg & I. Goldenberg, 2008, p.160). The infants rely on their mothers to fulfill their sexual urges. The oral stage serves as the primary stage of psychosexual development whereby the child derives pleasure from sucking his/her mother’s breast (Pressley & McCormick, 2007). The child who is 18 months old then enters in the anal stage wherein he/she derives pleasure from controlling the sphincter muscles. The primary caregiver determines if the child develops anal-retentive personality or anal-explosive therapy through harsh and lenient toilet training (Nevid, 2011, p.387). The erogenous zone shifts to penis in males and clitoris in female. Children at this stage are confronted with either oedipus complex or electra complex (Nevid, 2011, p.387). Male children often experience incestuous desire for opposite-sex parent; however, this desire is hampered by the fear for penis castration. Thus, they are impelled to identify with same sex-parent and forsake incestuous admiration for opposite-sex parent. This incestuous desire is similarly experienced by female children to their opposite-sex parent (Nevid, 2011, p.387). The child then enters into latency stage wherein sexual impulses are dormant. These sexual urges re-emerge during the genital stage. However, individuals have learned to direct their sexual desire to appropriate persons during this stage (Nevid, 2011, p.387). In summary, psychoanalysis considers family as highly influential in establishing human identity. In addition, psychoanalysis stresses that the human identity is fixed at an early period of life. Thus, current developments experienced by individuals are highly influenced by childhood events or experiences which occurred in the psychosexual stage of development (Andersen & Taylor 2012, 93). 4.4 Combination of Different Perspectives I personally think that family plays an important role in the society as it ensures continuity and consensus. However, the stereotypical perception of the role of women and men within the family undermines one gender over the other. I agree to conflict/feminist perspective that family perpetuates social inequalities based on gender. However, the role of society in influencing the family to adopt such view or perspective should not be undermined. I support the functionalist view on the crucial role of family in providing emotional support to the children and procreation. In addition, I support psychoanalysis view on the influence of childhood experiences in individual development. However, I disagree to its emphasis on the sexual urges. 5.0 Historical Review of Western Family Social scientists, whose interest lies in the family, tend to espouse the assumption that societies defined their kinship system based on either consanguianeal or conjugal lines. These scholars claimed that such patterns are closely related with the existing economic systems (Moroney, 1986, p.38). The stable and agrarian economy is characterised as being consanguineal while the industrial economy as conjugal. The current industrial society favored a nucleated system whereby the family is composed of the wife, husband, and their offspring. In contrast, nonindustrial societies emphasise an extended family wherein conjugal units were consolidated into a set of kinship ties (Moroney, 1986, p.38). Several scholars argued that natural evolutionary process facilitated the emergence of the nuclear family. They further explain that a more independent and smaller family is better equipped at meeting the demands of the industrial society (Moroney, 1986, p.38). Individuals in the current times witness increasing trends in divorce, childlessness, and lone parenthood in the west (Silva & Smart, 1999). Garland (1999, p.255) asserted that social and economic forces serve as powerful shapers of family throughout history. Nuclear family as a living unit emerged whenever political and economic conditions encouraged production by smaller groups. This form of family is suitable in economic conditions wherein investment and accumulation are essential (Garland, 1999, p.255). In addition, nuclear families are relatively mobile, which is favorable in a situation where individuals need to move to look for work, land, and opportunities. Nuclear family was strongly favored during the 18th century when the American society changed dramatically (Garland, 1999, p.255). This involves changes in the values and structures of family life. Americans during this period were constantly on the move in search for greater opportunities (Garland, 1999, p.255). 6.0 Contemporary Family in the West Significant changes in the family emerge in the current times. Some scholars reiterated that these changes serve as evidences of the decline of the family. They emphasise the negative effects of divorce, single-parent families, and unmarried parents to the children. Some even expressed their concerns over how most individuals consider marriage as the institution, which functions to meet emotional needs of the adults instead of nurturer the children. Cherlin (2009 cited in Sigelman & Rider, 2011, p.487) , a family scholar, noted that most children in the west experience confusing changes as parents look for another partner and switch from single hood to cohabitation. He further asserted that most individuals desire to be married, yet they equally want to be free to end the relationships, which are satisfying. This instability, which stemmed from conflicting desires, threatens the well-being of the children (cited in Sigelman & Rider, 2011, p.487). Dawson and Zimmerman (cited in Baskerville, 2009, p.169) stress that family is gradually losing its social significance and form. These scholars further added that functions once performed by the family are currently undertaken by the state. The state is currently relegated with the responsibility of educating children and maintaining their health and welfare (Baskerville, 2009, p.168). However, some scholars find advantages from these new trends in the family life. They argued that it facilitated equal role of men and women in the family. Families also benefited from two wage earners instead of one (cited in Sigelman & Rider, 2011, p.487). The western family became more diverse in the current times. It challenged the stereotypical conception of family--a nuclear family, which is composed of the breadwinner husband and full-time housewife plus the children. It was estimated that only 12% of the families adhere to this structure during 1995 as compared to 45% families in the 1960. This presents the need to redefine the view of a family to include single-parent, childless, dual-career, and some other types of families (cited in Sigelman & Rider, 2011, p.488). Nevertheless, a family still functions to facilitate socialization, proliferation of human species, regulation of sexual behavior, and emotional support in the current times (Knox & Schacht, 2012, p.7). 7.0 Cultural Comparison 7.1 Family of Origin A family is universally defined as consisting of individuals who are related by marriage, blood, or adoption. However, different cultures have their own unique form, structure, and definition of family. For instance, the family is bigger in size in Nigeria compared to the nuclear family of the western society. This extended family is commonly consists of individuals in different generations who live with one another. Kinship and family are synonymous constructs in Nigeria (Falolar, 2001, p.118). Nigerian groups adhere to patrilineal descent system. Female children are socialised early on to serve a subordinating role to men. This hierarchical structure often leads to dissolution of marriage due to birth of only or mainly female offspring (cited in The Marriage and Family Encyclopedia, 2012). Having many children in Nigeria serves as a status symbol. Several families in the eastern Nigeria have approximately ten or more children even if it presents greater economic burden. It was calculated that the national fertility rate was 6.31 children per woman during 1995. The birth rate was 43.26 per 1,000 individuals (cited in The Marriage and Family Encyclopedia, 2012) Rural dwellers, which form the majority of Nigerian population, are commonly polygamous. It places financial burden to the husbands as they are relegated with the responsibility of providing for their wives and children. This financial burden increases as the number of children increases and as children grow (Sadiku, 1996, p.136). In addition, husbands must also protect his wives from molestation of co-wives and accusations of relatives. He should also exhibit great respect towards his wive’s relatives. He is expected to offer them gifts and to render assistance (Sadiku, 1996, p.136). However, there are some educated and urban elites in Nigeria who prefer monogamy. They put emphasis on affection in their marital relationships as well as less interaction with kin. Growing economic constraints facilitate monogamous and neutral families in Nigeria. A luxurious life becomes impossible with a large/extended family; thus, Nigerian artisans and traders opt to have smaller families. Economy undeniably determines the size, interaction, and privileges of the family (Awason, 2009, p.56). Nwoke (2009) found gender role inequality in three ethnic groups in Nigeria. These groups view education of female children as useless. In addition, they stress that the role of women primarily involves conceiving and nurturing offspring. These women can even be returned to their father’s home if they failed to bear children for their husbands (Nwoke, 2009). The subordination of Nigerian women is vividly exhibited within the family. The Nigerian society expects them to be dependent to their husbands in line with the traditional stereotypical role of women as homemakers, mothers, and wives (Francoeur & Noonan, 2004, p.757). The process of socialisation prevents women from economic emancipation. Development efforts, which offer men access to the production inputs, simultaneously deny Nigerian women access to such inputs, which include skill training, credit, and ownership of land (Francoeur & Noonan, 2004, p.757). Children are raised by their parents with the belief that they will grow up to have a wife or husband. Studies indicated that the mother and father are responsive to the needs of their children. In addition, it showed that almost everyone in the Nigerian community is involved in nurturing a child when the father or mother is not around. The communal life in Nigeria assists in rearing a child as a neighbor will often feel free to baby sit and feed the baby when the absence of the father or mother (Stewart, 2010, p.106). Traditions are still deemed as important for Nigerian people amidst the urbanisation and modernisation of the country. They still revered, looked after, and take in the elderly into their families instead of put them in nursing homes. They put great value and worth to the elderly as they acknowledged the important role played by the elderly in passing tradition and family history to the new generation (R. Moran, Harris, & S. Moran, 2010). 7.2 Western Family Extended family became a dominant type of family during the period of Industrialisation in U.K. as it offered numerous services to members. However, the state began to provide some of these services. Thus, it became economically possible for the nuclear families to obtain economic stability (Walsh, et al., 2000). The extended family has given way to the adoption of nuclear family in the UK during the 1950’s. Unlike Nigeria, the nuclear family is considered as the norm in U.K. However, some scholars noted the decline of nuclear family in the current times. It is estimated that only 23% of households adopt the “traditional family” of parents with dependent children (Walsh, et al., 2000). Similar to Nigerian households, women in UK are primarily responsible for housework and childcare. However, recent evidences suggest greater equality among men and women in the family (Great Britain Home Office, 2007, p.29). Some scholars claimed that growing number of men are performing housework and taking the responsibility to raise the family. Researches also showed that fewer individuals who reside in UK believe that women should be at home (Great Britain Home Office, 2007, p.29). 8.0 Issues confronting Family 8.1 Attachment Researchers stress that many concerns and issues raised by clients are often associated with the problem of attachment insecurity. It develops when the attachment figure is constantly unavailable. Emotional unavailability often engenders insecure attachment, which consequently leads to feeling of anger, depression, and emotional disengagement. Thus, insecure attachment is deemed as a difficult issue confronting families (Susan & Whiffen, 2005, p.390). Attachment theory revolves around “internal working models,” which represent early experiences of individuals with their primary attachment figure that consequently guide their present interactions in their interpersonal relationships. Those who have available and responsive primary caregiver become well-adjusted or “secure” with their current relationships. In contrary, those who constantly have absent primary caregiver become less well-adjusted individuals (Gavazzi, 2011). 8.1.1 Nigeria In Nigeria, a study showed that infant developed attachment relationships with their maternal figures as the Nigerian society embraces polygamy. The study further indicated that infants prefer one caregiver over the others. Infants identify their primary caregiver as the one who constantly held them and interact with them (Reebye, et al., n.d.). The study also suggests that most Nigerian caregivers are sensitive to the needs of infants. However, they restrict infants to explore their environments or surroundings. Thus, there is a likelihood that these infants will become fearful of exploring new environments and experiences (Reebye, et al., n.d.). 8.1.2 U.K. In U.K, the prevalence of divorce and lone families negatively affects the relationship of the child and parent. Parents may become too preoccupied with marital conflicts that they become unavailable and unresponsive to the needs of their children. In lone families, a parent may concentrate on the means of providing food and shelter to his/her child that he/she may neglect the child’s emotional needs. Thus, there is a higher probability that these children will become highly anxious and avoidant (Patient.co.uk, 2012). Review of literature suggests that adolescent in Nigeria is ambivalent. He/she desires to associate with some other cultures; however, he/she still considers himself/herself as part of the traditional society. This is what sets himself/herself apart from other adolescents in the western society including U.K (Alao, et al., 2010, p.41). Adolescence is regarded as the continuation of the process of emotional and social attachment that is part of child’s development. This period is marked by the child’s identification with one of his/her parents (Alao, et al., 2010, p.41). Several theories contend that children primarily identify with their mother as they may likely establish emotional attachment to her. However, children of both sexes eventually learn to identify with their same sex parent (Alao, et al., 2010, p.41). 8.2 Physical and Mental Health 8.2.1 Nigeria Nigeria subscribes to the traditional belief in magic and witchcraft. The Nigerian community erroneously diagnosed mental illness as a malady caused by witchcraft and voodoo dolls (Akinade, 2010, p.7). A survey found that only 40% of Nigerians correctly identified an individual who experiences symptoms of paranoid schizophrenia as mentally ill. In comparison, all Americans correctly labelled the individual who suffered from symptoms of paranoid schizophrenia as mentally ill (Sartorius & Schulze, 2005, p. 219). Those who are identified as the victims of witchcraft or the one who practices witchcraft become subject to ostracism, exorcism, and death in Nigeria. These individuals are often shun by the family. Family members and relatives entrust the individual accused of witchcraft and victim of witchcraft to pentecostal leaders. However, it only functions to intensify the mental illness of an individual as he/she is not given with an appropriate treatment (Akinade, 2010, p.7). 8.2.2 U.K. It is calculated that 154,000 children in U.K. reside with a parent who has enduring mental health problem. Approximately 450,000 parents in U.K. have mental health difficulties. Perinatal depression negatively affects child development and mother child attachment. Children who grew up with parents who have mental health problems may likely be vulnerable to childhood psychiatric disorder (Stokes, 2011). Another study indicated that 10% of children experience behavioral or emotional problems, which burdened their families in U.K. In addition, the findings of the study showed that 16% of children who are from single-parent families have mental health problem compared to only 8% in two-parent families. Mental disorders are common for large families, families wherein parents cohabit, and step families (Stokes, 2011). Divorce or separation and marital conflict are the possible factors that contribute to mental health problems within the family in U.K. Most of the mental health problems are caused by disruption in parenting. The child’s inability to cope with pressures and external demands may reflect the parent’s inability to cope with such issues (Patient.co.uk, 2012). Over the decades, U.K. witnessed the growth of single mothers. This consequently affects children’s mental health. A study suggests that children who have a nurturing and visible father are well-adjusted. Father involvement is positively correlated with a child’s socio-behavioral and cognitive development (Patient.co.uk, 2012) 9.0 Conclusion There is a need to determine if the family should be defined according to its function or structure to set the bounds on who gets access to health benefits, retirement benefits, and social security of their partners. Several perspectives offered different views on family. A combination of the functionalist and conflict/feminist perspective provided insights into the functions and disadvantages of family. 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