Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - Research Paper Example

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Abstract Attention deficient hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of most rife disorders. Those distressed by this situation endure wide-ranging impairments. It is complex medical disarray characterized by dysfunction of the brain, in which the patients have trouble in controlling impulses, and accordingly, affecting their behavior and sustaining their span. Often, those affected exhibit a range of edifying, developmental, social, behavioral and interrelated difficulties. Latest inventions and innovations in remedial imaging, genetics, and neurology have made it to better comprehend the involvedness of this disorder. ADHD is a long-lasting disorder that instigates during babyhood and may advance well into adolescence and maturity. The prime attributes of ADHD include hyperactivity, intense impulsivity and spans of pitiable concentration. Other symptoms are being unsystematic, being scatterbrained, being preoccupied straightforwardly and complexity in maintaining deliberation in tasks. The children with this disorder have troubles playing inaudibly, are always on the go, have a predisposition to disrupt others and are habitually fidgeting. Handling ADHD include remedial measures through use of drugs, suitable diet and an amalgamation of various psychosocial approaches and interventions. New research into the diagnosis, management, prevention, and treatment of ADHD is still being undertaken and there is continued redefinition and updating of information regarding this disorder. This paper will review literature about categorization, history, causes, treatment, cross-cultural and biblical worldviews on ADHD. Introduction ADHD is an unceasing condition that usually begins in infancy and can lengthen through maturity. To diagnose a personage as having this disorder, specific criteria detailed in the DSM-IV must be met. According this diagnostic manual, ADHD occurs in three forms: Inattentive type Hyperactive-impulsive type Combined type (Weiner, 2003). Patients in each of the three forms parade certain predominant behaviours. A child can be diagnosed with ADHD if they highlighted more than six signs of inattentiveness, over-activity, impetuousness for more than a year (Dixon, 2005). For an individual to be diagnosed with inattentive type, they ought to have at least six or more highlights of inattentiveness for over half a year. According to Nigg (2006), symptoms that comprise inattention are recurrently not paying close consideration, not being watchful in school, at work, and during other deeds; often has great difficulties being focused on tasks or play activities, habitually not following instructions; habitual failure to finish schoolwork, tasks or work-related responsibilities. Often exhibits difficulties organizing duties and activities. Often fails to listen when unswervingly addressed. Frequently evades or vacillates to be involved in activities needing continued mental effort such as homework. Commonly loses items given for tasks or activities for instance writing materials, toys and equipment. Normally preoccupied by peripheral factors and exceedingly often overlooks some everyday activities. In individuals with the predominant hyperactive-impulsive type of ADHD, they show less than six characteristics of inattention and over six signs of over activity and impulsivity. Kehoe (2001) notes that the classic characteristics exhibited by individuals with this subtype of ADHD include: Fidgeting frequently with arms and legs and squirming while seated Habitually leaves seat whilst remaining seated is the established norm Frequently running or climbing in areas where such behaviour is unacceptable Always exhibiting problems playing noiselessly or conducting relaxation activities Regularly seeming like they are on the go and behaving as though powered by a motor excessive, incessant talking Blurting answers long before the queries are asked Frequently being very impatient and habitually interrupting conversations or play activities with others The third subtype of ADHD, according to DSM-IV, is a combination of the inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive categories. Individuals with this subtype have more than six symptoms of inattentive and hyperactivity-impulsivity indicators. Majority of children having the ADHD disorder usually have this combined subtype (Lopez, 2006). The History of ADHD ADHD was originally described by Still in 1902 (Lopez, 2006). His discoveries were based on research he carried out on a cohort of children who exhibited an ‘abnormal incapacity for sustained attention, restlessness and fidgetiness’ (Sangere, 2000). He found out that these children showed severe insufficiencies in volitional inhibition most probably genetically associated. His findings that the cause of ADHD in an individual was produced by something within the individual and not by environmental factors was further propped by the chance discovery by Bradley in 1937 that amphetamine, a psycho-stimulant drug, could lessen hyperactivity and behavioural problem symptoms (Weiner, 2003). Various expressions and slogans have been assumed to elucidate this disorder. Such include ‘minimal brain damage or dysfunction’ widely in use till late 1950s. With more research into ADHD there has been more advanced understanding and familiarization with the disorder and gradual change from descriptions such as ‘learning/behavioural disability to hyperactivity’(Sangere, 2000). Owing to extensive research, primary prominence changed from aetiology to behavioural phrase and the most essential attribute became hyperactivity. Numerous researches have been done on ADHD disorder and various other terms coined in a bid to explain the condition. The second edition of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-II) developed in 1968 described the disorder as ‘hyperkinesis reaction of childhood’ (Dixon, 2005). Various other significant researchers have analysed the symptoms and came to a conclusion that attention, or lack there-of, instead of hyperactivity is the important feature of the disorder. Consequently, attention was adopted as a key word. There have been numerous discoveries and reforms to the standard diagnosis and literatures regarding thisdisorder which has contributed to the development of the latest edition of American Psychiatric Association diagnostic manual – DSM IV. It classifies the subtypes of ADHD including the combined type and the criteria for diagnosing each of the disorder subtypes. In general, the current criteria states that the symptoms must appear in the individual before they are seven years old. The symptoms must be exhibited in the individual in at least two different settings; that the symptoms lead to considerable impairment of the individual’s academic, work-related and social abilities, and finally, they are unexplainable by any other psychiatric or psychosocial condition (Nigg, 2006). Causes of ADHD The actual sources of ADHD are unknown. Nevertheless, after years of research, a number of elements have been shown to play a role or aggravate this disorder. They are diet, environment - social and physical and genetic predisposition (Lopez, 2006). Two independent researches indicate that ADHD is genetically linked and it contributes a significant 75% of the total cases (Weiner, 2003). It has also been proven that occurrence of hyperactivity is also genetically related interconnected, and various genes associated with dopamine transporters have a significant role to play in the development of ADHD. Environmental factors such as use of alcohol and tobacco during pregnancy as well as heavy metal poisoning with elements like lead in early life contributes to ADHD(Sangere, 2000). Other factors such as birth complications, precipitated births and some infectivity have a substantial contribution in the progress of this disorder. Another probable cause of ADHD has been linked to diet; ingestion of artificial food colors and dyes (Kehoe, 2001). Other suggested causes include aggression and poignant abuse of children and evolutionary theory suggesting a linkage between ADHD and evolution. Treatment of ADHD The currently available treatment approaches applied in the management of ADHD are a combination of changes in behaviours, modification of lifestyles, psychotherapy, and use of drugs (Lopez, 2006). Research finding indicate that medication coupled to modification of behaviour treatment are the most potent method of treating ADHD. ADHD drugs have been demonstrated to produce desired effect in close to 80 per cent ofthe affected individuals (Dixon, 2005). The treatment of ADHD is very important. Individuals with this disorder experience major difficulties in adolescence and later in adulthood; a considerable number of these individuals experience major problems in their academic, occupational and social life. In addition to higher likelihood of dropping out of school- whether high school or college, they also have a greater risk of getting involved in motor vehicle accidents, general injuries and usually incur greater medical overheads, earlier sexual activities, and higher probability of adolescent pregnancies (Sangere, 2000). Due to the profound effect of ADDHD on personal life, medication and management through other means such as psychosocial approaches is really important to ensure that the affected individuals strive to live a normal life and are able to cope with complications off this disorder that come up later in life. Prevention of ADHD Prevention principally involves avoiding the facts that trigger the disorder. The first measure to prevent ADHD is to avoid eating foods with artificial dyes and food colourings (Weiner, 2003). Research carried out in Britain indicates that food additives have a significant effect on the children’s behaviours. The control measures adopted by the government have been to press all food companies to cease the use of food dyes in the foods. Others include avoidance of other risk factors such as alcohol and tobacco use during pregnancy as well as adoption of psychosocial approaches to managing behavioursconnected to ADHD to prevent further problems later in adolescence and adulthood (Sangere, 2000). Cross-Cultural and Biblical Worldviews In many cultures and among many Christian societies, they characterise ADHD as an incurable disorder that can only be treated with drug- both stimulant and non-stimulant drugs (Kehoe, 2001). However, these beliefs are fast changing and families are accepting the condition as a disorder that here to stay and there is hope of treating and successfully managing it with a combination of drugs and other natural and practical methods. The various diverse views that different cultures hold are due to the fact that ADHD is not quite viewed as a disease like others such as measles are perceived. This is because ADHD is not a disease that a physician can diagnose by simply collecting and analysing specimens in order to demonstrate the existence of germs. The physician can only check for existence of a range of symptoms; ADHD is simply a collection of symptoms and not quite a disease. Conclusion ADHD is a disorder that has remarkable effects and an assortment of learning difficulties on the affected individual as well as the education facilities, homes and the society at large. Nevertheless, with advances in neuro-medicine, various strategies and solutions that are far more effective in successfully managing ADHD and helping the families with such children to live and take care of those with the disorder have been developed. With medications, numerous drugs are already in use and are quite effective though many more breakthroughs seem in store in the future. References Dixon, K. (2005). Managing ADHD. Journal of Developmental and Behavioural Paediatrics. Vol 26 (2). 386-392. Kehoe, W. A. (2001). Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorderin Children. Ann Pharmacother. Vol 35:1130–1134. Lopez, F. A (2006). ADHD: new pharmacological treatments on the horizon. Journal of developmental and behavioural paediatrics. Vol. 27: 410-416. Nigg, J. T. (2006). What Causes ADHD? Understanding What Goes Wrong And Why. New York: The Guilford Press. Sangere J. (2000). ADHD: Making the Appropriate Paediatric Assessment. Lippincotts Prim Care Pract. Vol 4:193–206. Wiener, J. M. (2003). Textbook of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Read More