Topic: Assignment 3 Psychological Factors - Essay Example

1. Discuss the nature of pain including physiological and psychological factors. What are the methods for managing pain? Be sure to describe theory and research findings on this topic.  Pain is an objectionable sensation that is communicated to the mind by nerve cells. It originates from injury or stress to the body. However, there is more in pain than just the physical understanding or feelings of pain. A person’s view of pain as well as its interpretation may influence the meaning of pain. Sensitivity conveys information to the brain regarding the point of origin, the amount as well as the nature of pain. The emotional reaction to feelings and perception indicates the amount of pain experienced by a person (Patrick & Altmaier 2004). In physiological terms, Keefe et al. (2004) observed that pain can be described as a toxic stimulus that exerts stress on the body thereby affecting homeostasis. The body reacts to such stress through several physiological changes that involve the movement of energy substrates from their storage areas to the blood to surmount the stressor. The sympathetic nervous system influences several physiological changes that help to relieve the pain (Bobey 2002). Transmission of pain is responsible for the early physiological changes that occur in the body and is based on various underlying principles. Transduction is among the principles that are concerned with the transformation of an injurious stimulus in the endings of the sensory nerves to a nerve irritation. The primary afferent neurons detect the noxious stimulus and release various chemicals such as prostaglandins that transmit the impulse to the spinal cord (Lesho 2003). The pain is then transmitted from the spinal cord to the brain through the brain stem, thalamus and eventually the cortex of the brain. Neural activity generates perception of pain leading to the detection, classification and response to it. Perception is accomplished in the cortex of the brain after which the pain is modulated through the establishment of downward conduits that hinder further transmission of noxious stimuli thereby causing a reduction of pain (Keefe et al. 2004). Psychological factors play a significant role in determining the extent of pain as perceived by the victim. Generally, the mind and the body are interdependent in regard to characterization of painful experiences. Psychological factors such as depression, anger, despondency, sadness, anxiety and exasperation may amplify the pain. Depression is understood to be a major contributor to pain. The person suffering from pain is usually in need of comfort. Pain that is not observable such as lower back pain may not attract sympathy as observable pain such as broken limbs would. Such a situation whereby the victim does not receive the desired consolation agonizes a lot as a result of the pain (Bobey 2002). Patrick & Altmaier (2004) established that pain may affect thinking, temper as well as an individual’s conduct, which on the other hand influences his/her relationship with other people. In some instances, pain may cause an individual to remain in isolation with minimal movement due to the fear that something might happen to worsen the situation if he/he interacts with others, which is an indication of personality disorder. Methods for Managing Pain Medications such as analgesics are commonly used to relieve pain making the victim feel relaxed but not necessarily treating the disease causing the pain. Warm water therapy is also applied through pressing the painful areas with a cloth thereby relaxing muscles. Resting is also a recommendable pain reliever which allows the body to regain strength. Lesho (2003) observes that rest decreases inflammation, although some exercise is desired to avoid excessive stillness that may lower the strength of muscles. Moderate exercises are recommendable to allow good circulation of blood and to enhance muscle strength. Massage therapy is commonly used in contemporary pain management to relieve pain in swollen muscles. It enhances relaxation and blood circulation. Surgical procedure can be applied as the last resort in case all other pain relieving interventions fail. In the case of a painful tooth, removal is the last option. 2. Discuss the mechanisms through which personality might be related to health and illness. Then describe the research findings that demonstrate the strongest links between personality, stress, and health/illness. Consider concepts such as hardiness, resiliency, optimistic, and pessimistic explanatory styles.  The biopsychosocial model is significant in understanding and treating ailments. It assumes that illness and disease are influenced by physiological, psychological and social factors in tandem. Personality is one of the psychological factors that are influenced by social factors which influence health (Epstein et al. 2004). The psychodynamic approach to personality is based on the assumptions made by Sigmund Freud in his works on psychoanalysis. He postulated that the unconscious mind as a major factor that controls the human behavior. This is the mind that holds feelings, attitude, desires as well as recollections that are far from consciousness. The unconscious mind generates feelings of embarrassment, disagreement and nervousness among other unpleasant aspects. It consistently influences behavior as well as human experience though people remain uninformed regarding the fundamental influences (HJelle & Ziegler 1992). Barbara (2006) established that personality traits usually influence the manner in which individuals cope with stress, which is a significant determinant of the health of a person. Generally, a polite person who holds back stress and frustration in him/her is likely to suffer from ill health. Suppressing negative feelings decreases the chances of an individual overcoming them and this may adversely affect his/her health. Hardiness therefore may to a great extent be disadvantageous to person. Nevertheless, Carver & Scheier (2000) observe that endurance enhances healing since it allows the individual to evaluate the available alternatives with confidence. People who are unable to endure pain may be frightened of their condition, which increases chances of stress and ill health.   Bouchard (2004) observed that resiliency is a characteristic of positive personality that helps an individual to avoid anxiety by enhancing the inner strengths that generate encouragement. Uncontrolled anxiety leads to the General Anxiety Disorder thereby maintaining constant worry about every aspect of an individual’s life. This may facilitate stress and eventual illness. Optimism is an aspect of personality that influences recovery from an ailment. The person who possesses confidence that he/she will hill recovers faster than the pessimistic individual who worries all along while ailing. The fear of death becomes overwhelming to such a person, which may lead to other ailments such as heart disease and hypertension (Barbara 2006). The health behavior model is based on the life span theory which hypothesizes that the pressure of personality traits on illness and health are reconciled by health behaviors. Good health in a person is attributed to endurance and practicing of behaviors that promote health while avoiding actions that endanger it. Amicability and candidness are significant aspects of personality that allow individuals to express their feelings early enough such that treatment can begin before a disease establishes in the body (Bogg & Roberts 2004). Patients who discover that they are sick but fail to accept their status have a negative personality in the sense that they fear what other people will say of them. They fear stigmatization by the society and therefore tend to conceal their predicaments. Such behavior adversely affects people’s health since treatment begins when it is too late. This indicates the extent to which personality can influence health (Carver & Scheier 2000). Bouchard (2004) argues that vulnerability to stress among individuals significantly affects their health. People who approach life too seriously fear failure and their expectations may be put off by stressful circumstances. It is important to possess the capability to deal with stress or else an individual’s personality may generate ill health. Stress affects mean and women men and women differently depending on the society’s perception. For example, a culture that degrades women may lead them to suppress their feelings thereby failing to seek treatment. On the other hand, male ego may lead men to conceal their ailment by overestimating their capacity to cope with disease. 3. You are going to be working with a bereavement group: (a) What sources of distress should be looked for, (b) what types of actions and recommendations are likely to be helpful to members of the group, (c) what are the stages of grieving that you would expect to see in members of this group and how would you recognize each? (d) what type of special factors such as culture, gender, or relationship to the deceased will you need to consider (explain how these will be important)?  Sources of Distress in the Bereavement Group Distress caused by inquiries in to the death of a person may adversely affect the grieving. This is amplified by people allover as well as the media talking about the death especially if the deceased died through questionable circumstances. Sometimes the society may point an accusing finger on the grieving thereby increasing their distress (Stearns 2008). The distress may also result from disgrace and stigmatization in the society especially for suicide cases. Shock may also cause distress when people are unable to come to terms with the occurrence. Numbness after bereavement makes people unable to envisage the permanence of death and some hardly accept that the death of a loved one is real. Numbness together with an irresistible sense of loss may cause significant distress that is intensified by sorrow and longing for the deceased. Despair and sadness lead to physical and emotional distress whereby the grieving experience insomnia, agitation and fatigue among other physical and emotional pains (Auger, 2000). Actions and Recommendations helpful to Members of the Group To overcome grief, it is recommendable that people maintain consciousness of the present moment. They need to understand the activities taking place in their midst and ensure that they pay attention to whatever they do. For example, they can concentrate on a song and ensure they pay attention to every bit of it. This allows people to think away from memories of the deceased (Konigsberg 2011). Coping with grief is necessary, whichever way is appropriate for different people. Talking together regarding the loss allows members of the group to share their predicaments. Engaging in exercises helps to relax the mind and reduce the numbness among grieving groups. Eating is necessary to maintain their normal body functions. Failure to eat increases stress to the body and may extend the grieving process. Grieving people can also overcome the situation by establishing a memorial that indicates their fondness to the deceased. They can engage in charitable activities in honor of the deceased. In case of intense grief, the services of a counselor can be sought (Stearns 2008). Stages of Grieving in the Bereavement Group There are seven stages grief that can be expected in the group. However, it is not mandatory that all will occur in a sequence. Shock and denial is the foremost stage that occurs immediately after bereavement. This may last for a long period and as shock diminishes, a sense of pain and remorse is experienced. This stage is characterized by agony and skepticism, with individuals experiencing false feelings regarding the loved ones (Konigsberg 2011). This stage is followed by disappointment and resentment which may cause individuals to hold others responsible for the death. Depression, thoughts about the deceased as well as solitude may result. The degree of loss is usually felt at this stage and encouragement by others may not be helpful. Memories of the past with the deceased take control of the group leading to purposelessness and despair. The group eventually comes to terms with the loss and begins adjusting to live without the deceased. Distress fades paving way for reconstruction and engagement in normal functions. At this stage, the group finds alternatives to the responsibilities left by the deceased. Eventually, the group accepts the reality and establishes a way forward (Auger, 2000). Special Factors to Consider in the Bereavement Group Hofsted defines culture as a tool that the mind applies to guide a person’s day to day activities and interactions with others. He believes that culture is a collective aspect of a population that has occupied a particular social environment where individuals learn unique norms and also develop standards that guide their behavior. These behaviors make a distinction between cultures since all individuals in a particular culture share norms and customs (Hofstede, 1991). It is necessary to consider how the culture of the grieving affects their activities during grief. Gender is also a significant factor that is also related to culture. Different cultures treat women and men differently in their death. Any approach to assist a grieving group must take in to consideration their expectations in regard to treatment of the dead. Failure to consider these factors may lead to rejection of the assistance. Understanding the group’s relationship to the deceased is important since it acts as an indicator of the nature of distress (Konigsberg 2011). Reference Auger, J. A. (2000). Social Perspectives of Death and Dying, Fernwood Publishing Barbara, E. (2006). Personality Theories. Houghton Mifflin. Bobey, M. J. (2002), “Psychological factors affecting pain tolerance”, Journal of Psychosomatic Research, Vol. 14(4) pp. 371-376 Bogg T, & Roberts B. W. (2004), “Conscientiousness and health-related behaviors: A meta-analysis of the leading behavioral contributors to mortality”. Psychological Bulletin. Vol. 130 pp. 887–919. Bouchard, T. J. (2004). Genetic Influence on Human Psychological Traits. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(4), 148-151. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2000). Perspectives on personality, Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Epstein, R. M. & Francesc, B.,  Suchman, A.L.  (2004), “The Biopsychosocial Model 25 Years Later: Principles, Practice, and Scientific Inquiry”, Annals of Family Medicine, Vol. 2 pp 576 HJelle, L.A., & Ziegler, D.J. (1992). Personality Theories: Basic Assumptions, Research, and Applications. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company Hofstede, G. (1991) Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Keefe, F. J., Rumble M. E., Scipio C. D, Giordano, L. A. (2004), “Psychological Aspects of persistent Pain: Current state of the science”. Journal of Pain, Vol. 4 pp 195-211.  Konigsberg, R. D. (2011). The Truth About Grief: The Myth of Its Five Stages and the New Science of Loss, Simon & Schuster Lesho E. P. (2003). “When the Spirit Hurts: An Approach to the Suffering Patient,” Archives of Internal Medicine, Vol. 163(20), pp. 2429–32. Patrick L. E., & Altmaier E. M. (2004), “Long-term outcomes in multidisciplinary treatment of chronic low back pain: Results of a 13-year follow-up”, Spine Vol. 29 pp. 850-855. Stearns, P. N. (2008). Revolutions in Sorrow: The American Experience of Death in Global Perspective, Paradigm Publishers Read More