The Notable Issues throughout a Stressful Period - Research Paper Example

?Stress Management Table of Contents Table of Contents Introduction to Stress 2 Stress Models 3 General Adaptation Syndrome 3 Alarm 3 Resistance 3 Exhaustion 3 Eustress and Distress 4 Cognitive Appraisal Model 4 Sources of Stress 4 Impacts of Long Term Stress 5 Need to Manage Stress 6 Managing Stress 6 Stress Measurement 6 Stress Management Models 7 Transactional Model 7 Health Realisation / Innate Health Model 8 Stress Relieving Techniques 8 Conclusion 8 Bibliography 8 Introduction to Stress The term stress is widely used in both physiology and biology. Usage begun in the 1930’s through Hans Selye’s work and became popular in recent decades. Stress refers to the results due to failure of an organism (either human or others) to respond effectively in respect of physical, mental or emotional demands. These demands may be actual or imagined or a combination of both. (Selye, 1956) Stress may manifest itself through behavioural, emotional, physical or cognitive signs or through a combination of these signs. The most general signs of stress include (but are not limited to): negative outlook and paranoia; excessive anxiety; moodiness; irritability; loneliness; isolation; physical pains such as: chest pains; muscular pains; headaches. disturbances in basic systems: diarrhoea; constipation; nausea; increased heartbeats; insomnia or sleeping too much; eating little or too much; increased substance abuse. procrastination; personal ostracising along with general social withdrawal; inability to relax. Depression is often associated to stress. However, depression does not commence at the start of a stressful period. Instead, depression is a consequence of prolonged anxiety and stress. (Selye, 1975) The most notable issue throughout a stressful period is how stress affects the average human being and his effectiveness. As mentioned above, stress is a consequence of failure of normal human routines. The prolonged failure that is stress often produces greater consequences. These consequences are both physical and emotional in nature. To ensure that a human being can effectively carry out normal functions in society, it is necessary to deal with stress so that it is manageable. Stress Models In order to deal with stress more effectively, there is a dire need to understand stress better. Various models have been created that delineate stress. Based on these models, stress can be dealt with more effectively. The various popular stress models are listed below. General Adaptation Syndrome Stress is defined on the basis of how the human body reacts to stimulus. These stimuli are better known as stressors. Stressors could be both real and imagined. Moreover, stressors can be acute as well as chronic and display their affects on the human body respectively. The general adaptation syndrome model breaks down stress into three distinct phases. An explanation of these is provided below. Alarm Alarm is taken as the first stage of stress. As soon as the body identifies a stressor (whether realised or imagined), the stress response system delves into a state of alarm. Throughout this stage, the body continuously produces adrenaline which initiates the fight or flight response. The HPA axis is also activated bringing about the production of cortisol. Resistance In case that the stressor persists, the body finds the need of dealing with the stressor and the ensuing stress. The body finds ways of dealing with the strain and environmental demands but it cannot do this indefinitely. Gradually, the body’s resources get depleted. Exhaustion This is the last stage of the general adaption model. The body’s resources are all depleted by this stage. As a result, the body is not able to carry out normal functions any more. Often the initial symptoms remerge such as raised heart beat rate, profuse sweating etc. If this stage continues unabated for extended periods, lasting damage may result. The body’s immune system gets exhausted and decompensation comes about. The results of this stage often manifest themselves as chronic illnesses such as diabetes, cardiovascular troubles, depression, digestive problems, ulcers as well as mental illnesses. (Seligman, 1975) Eustress and Distress Another stress model has been presented by Selye that divides stress into two categories that are eustress and distress. (Selye, 1975) Eustress is defined as stress that enhances human functions including physical and mental functions. This can be achieved through dealing challenging work as well as through strength based training. Distress is defined as stress that continues and is not resolved through the normal means such as adaption and coping. This kind of stress is known to lead to withdrawal and anxiety. Experiences that result in either eustress or distress are differentiated by differences in personal expectations, real or imagined expectations as well as resources that are used to cope with stress. Both real and imagined experiences can trigger a stress response. (Ron de Kloet, Joels, & Holsboer, 2005) Cognitive Appraisal Model It has been argued by Lazarus that a psychosocial situation can only become stressful if it is perceived as such. (Lazarus, 1966) Lazarus holds that cognitive processes of appraisal are fundamental in deciding if any situation is malignant or benign. This appraisal is influenced by environmental as well as personal factors. Based on the factors, the coping processes are triggered into action. The problem is often dealt with by problem focused coping approaches. On the other hand, negative emotions are managed by emotion focused coping approaches. After this, a secondary appraisal is carried out which evaluates the resources that are required to deal with the problem. The secondary appraisal may revaluate and eventually change the primary appraisal. More simply, the primary appraisal settles as to how stressful the problem itself is whereas the secondary appraisal identifies the resources required and available to deal with the problem. This directly affects the total appraisal of stress and stressfulness of a situation. Coping mechanisms triggered by these appraisals are flexible. If an individual feels that effective coping is not being carried out, they will revert to other methods to cope with the problem. (Aldwin, 2007) Sources of Stress Stress can be caused by both negative and positive stressors. The circumstances of stress as well as the emotional state of the affected person determine the duration as well as the intensity of the stress experienced. Common classes of stress and their examples are listed below to enhance understanding on stress and methods to cope with them. (Arnold & Boggs, 2007) Sensory Inputs: These include factors such as noise, pain, temperature extremes, and bright lights as well as a lack of regulation over environmental factors. Environmental factors include such things as air, housing, food, freedom, quality of life etc. Social Issues: A major source of stress is social problems that an individual has to experience throughout a lifetime. Often struggles with difficult or conspecific individuals results in high stress. Social defeat also plays a large part in creating stress whether such social defeat is imagined or real. Other large happenings including deception, betrayals, births, deaths, liabilities, divorce etc. Life Experiences: Common life experiences play a significant part in creating stress though such stress is generally short lived. However, such stress may protract to longer periods too if left unattended. Experiences such as unemployment, alcoholism, substance abuse, unemployment, obsessive compulsive disorder, insomnia etc. also create stress. (Yehuda & Mostofsky, 2006) Often employed people as well as students experience stress from performance pressures such as those from exams or creeping deadlines. Adverse Experiences: Any difficult experiences during childhood contribute to stress during maturity. Phenomenon such as prenatal exposure to maternal stress, sexual abuse, bullying and poor attachment histories contribute to stress on maturity. Such stress is often prolonged and the individual’s stress response system is highly exhausted from dealing with such stresses. (Schore, 2003) Impacts of Long Term Stress Various impacts of short term stress have been outlined above. The effects of long term stress better known as chronic stress are known to impact the human body in more ways than one. Chronic stress has also been shown to affect an individual’s perceptions and reaction to stress. Stress tends to interfere with the human immune system which in turn leads to lowered immunity levels. Various health problems are known to result from chronic stress such as skin disorders. (Aubrey, 2009) Children are most suspectible to growth disorders initiated by chronic stress. Studies have confirmed a relationship between homes based problems such as marital discord, child abuse and alcoholism in parents and lowered or impaired child growth. Stress tends to lower the output of the pituitary gland that is responsible for producing growth hormones. (Schore, 2003) Continued stress produces certain stress hormones that affect the human brain directly. Regions of the brain where memories are stored and processed from are affected by stress hormones. These hormones tend to suppress the brain’s memory functions. (The Franklin Institute, 2004) Another disturbing consequence of stress is the accumulation of visceral fat in the body. A study of female monkeys in Wake Forest University revealed that monkeys suffering from stress had greater visceral fat stored in their bodies. The accumulation of visceral fat causes hormonal changes as well as metabolic changes. These changes act as triggers for cardiovascular problems as well as other related health problems. (Park, 2009) Need to Manage Stress The short term as well as long term effects of stress impairs many of the individual’s functions. The consequences of stress range from mild problems such as nausea to more serious consequences such as growth impairment. In order to ensure that stress does not affect an individual’s functions in society, it is necessary to manage stress. Stress management could be carved to suit short term stress issues or to deal with chronic stress issues. It is advisable to deal with stress before the consequences of stress cause permanent impairment. Managing Stress Stress management refers to reducing stress levels especially chronic stress so as to improve everyday functions. Techniques for stress management are deemed to be critical to leading a satisfied and successful life in modern society. The demands of a complicated life can be balanced out best utilising stress management techniques. These techniques promote the amelioration of anxiety and aid in promoting the overall well being of an individual. Effective stress management is centred on measuring stress, discovering more about stress management models and understanding techniques that aid in managing stress. Stress management practices are presented below to promote understanding. Stress Measurement Stress levels can be measures using various techniques. One potent psychological testing technique is the Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale. Stressful situations in life are segregated for children as well as adults. 43 different situations exist. The individual to be tested indicate which situations affect them the most throughout life. Each situation is assigned a score which is added at the end of the testing. If the total score exceeds 300 then the individual is deemed to be liable to stress related health issues. If an individual scores between 150 and 300 then they have a reduced risk (30% reduced) of ending up with stress based health issues. If an individual scores below 150 then there are no imminent chances of stress related problems. (Holmes & Rahe, 1967) Another psychological technique is DASS (Depression Anxiety Stress Scale) which consists of 42 self report items that have to be answered within five to ten minutes. Each item consists of a negative emotional symptom. A four point scale is used to rate each item with lowest being 0 and highest being 3. All items are randomly distributed. This test not only measures anxiety, stress and depression but also isolates its effects in the individual. The depressions as well as the stress scales have standard thresholds of 0.9 while anxiety has a threshold of 0.7. (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) Similarly, physical changes in the human body can be used to measure stress levels too. Generally blood pressure levels change as do galvanic skin response figures. Moreover, digital thermometers can be used to evaluate skin temperature variations that often signify activation of the fight or flight response. It must be borne in mind that effective stress management has immune benefits as well as physiological benefits. (Bower & Segerstrom, 2004) Stress Management Models Stress management models exist just as stress models exist. This are utilised to deal with stress better. Various approaches are used which are listed below. Transactional Model The transactional model centres on defining stress as an imbalance between human demands and resources. This model holds that whenever pressure on an individual exceeds the individual’s perceived ability to cope with stress, the individual feels stressed. Another implication of this belief is that stress is not seen as a consequence of a stressor but rather as an individual’s perception of the stressor. This allows the individual to change their perception and hence their reaction to a stressor. This amenable change allows the individual to deal with stress effectively. (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) To develop an effective stress management model, the factors central to an individual’s perception of stress must be identified first. These factors are used to intervene in the stress situation effectively. This interpretation of stress is focused on the transactional relationship between an individual and their external environments. This model contends that an actual stressor may not be a stressor to an individual if the stressor is perceived as challenging or positive rather than as a stressor. Moreover, if the person develops and utilises adequate stress coping skills, then there are great chances that the stressor may not be able to induce stress at all. It is assumed that people can be taught how to deal with stress as well as managing stress coppers. The model relies on the ability of an individual to develop adequate stress coping skills so that confidence levels can be boosted and stressors can be dealt with better. Health Realisation / Innate Health Model The health realisation model is also centred on the belief that stress is not necessarily an outcome of a potential stressor. The health realisation model differs from the transactional model by stating that the individual’s thought train and not the perception of the stressor is important. This model suggests that ultimately a person’s thought process determines the individual response to a potentially stressful external situation. The primal method of creating stress in this model is to appraise one’s self as well as the circumstances by utilising a negative mental filter that is based on insecurity. (Mills, 1995) The best possible method to deal with stress according to this model is to promote positive feelings using personal strength. This model focuses on aiding the individual to understand the nature of thought better. This promotes the ability of the individual to identify when they are in the grips of a negative mood. This also helps them to disengage from negative thinking and perception and to take up positive thinking modes. This reduces the perceived effect of the stressor and aids the concerned individual in throwing off stress both for the short term and the long term. (Sedgeman, 2005) Stress Relieving Techniques Stress is often driven by high workloads (or their perception) as well as the application of extra effort on the part of the individual. The individual’s schedule has to be simplified either actually or in such a manner that the individual feels distressed or overworked. People who develop stress as a result of negative perception are best dealt with by promoting divergent activates such as hobbies, activity clubs and the like. These activities leave the individual with little time to focus on negativity. Moreover, the individual’s social interaction is promoted which aids them in moving out of their socially recalcitrant model. (Lehrer, Barlow, Woolfolk, & Sime, 2007) Conclusion Stress is a common reality and affects human functionality both in the short term and long term. Stressor can be both perceived and real but in either form they are detrimental to human health. In order to deal with stress effectively, the individual perception of stress plays an important part. Stress can be dealt with effectively by modifying an individual’s perception of stress. A number of techniques are used to change individual thinking patterns. All in all, stress is dangerous for human health and can be dealt with by encouraging thought in the right manner. Bibliography Aldwin, C. (2007). Stress, Coping, and Development, Second Edition. New York: The Guilford Press. Arnold, E., & Boggs, K. (2007). Interpersonal relationships: Professional communication skills for nurses. Toronto: W. B. Saunders. Aubrey, A. (2009, September 14). Treating Stress and Skin Disease in Tandem. Retrieved July 30, 2011, from National Public Radio: http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=112804905 Bower, J. E., & Segerstrom, S. (2004). Stress management, finding benefit, and immune function: positive mechanisms for intervention effects on physiology. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 56 (1) , 9-11. Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The Social Readjustment Rating Scale. J Psychosom Res 11 (2) , 213–8. Lazarus, R. (1966). Psychological Stress and the Coping Process. New York: McGraw-Hill. Lazarus, R., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New York: Springer. Lehrer, P. M., Barlow, D. H., Woolfolk, R. L., & Sime, W. E. (2007). Principles and Practice of Stress Management, Third Edition. Lovibond, P., & Lovibond, S. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy 33 (3) , 335–343. Mills, R. (1995). Realizing Mental Health: Toward a new Psychology of Resiliency. Sulberger & Graham Publishing, Ltd. Park, A. (2009, August 8). Fat Bellied Monkeys Suggest Why Stress Sucks. Retrieved July 30, 2011, from Time: http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1915237,00.html Ron de Kloet, E., Joels, M., & Holsboer, F. (2005). Stress and the brain: from adaptation to disease. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6 (6) , 463–475. Schore, A. (2003). Affect Regulation & the Repair of the Self. New York: W.W. Norton. Sedgeman, J. (2005). Health Realization/Innate Health: Can a quiet mind and a positive feeling state be accessible over the lifespan without stress-relief techniques? Med. Sci. Monitor 11(12) , 47-52. Seligman, M. (1975). Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. Selye, H. (1975). Confusion and controversy in the stress field. Journal of Human Stress 1 , 37–44. Selye, H. (1956). The Stress of Life. New York: McGraw Hill. The Franklin Institute. (2004). Renew - Stress on the Brain. Retrieved July 30, 2011, from The Franklin Institute: http://www.fi.edu/learn/brain/stress.html Yehuda, S., & Mostofsky, D. (2006). Nutrients, Stress, and Medical Disorders. New Jersey: Humana Press. Read More