The Neural and Physical Process - Research Paper Example

Homeostasis in Psychology Often people feel a pang of fear and nervousness when anticipating challenging endeavors or going to unfamiliar places. These unwelcomed and unpleasant mental states are natural reactions of human beings that are needed to be controlled in order to function normally amidst the stress brought by the situation. As such, one must consider Psychological Homeostasis or the “neural and physical process that maintain the equilibrium of mental states or equanimity that would enable a human to live and perform at normal levels” (Long). According to Berntson and Cacioppo (459), “since the seminal work of Walter Cannon, the concept of homeostasis has been a major force in the historical development of views of autonomic regulation and control”. Several twentieth-century psychological concepts and theories have been shaped by the homeostatic construct such as models of reinforcement, motivation, perception, personality and psychosomatic disorders. The origins of the homeostatic concept may be traced back as early as the time of Hippocrates while the term homeostasis and the negative feedback model of homeostatic regulation are more contemporary. The report of Claude Bernard on the relative constancy of the internal environment of living creatures was reflected into “an organism’s ability to stabilize the cellular environment despite powerful entropic forces that threaten to disrupt the biological order essential for life. Mechanisms underlying this constancy permit warm-blooded creatures to live what Bernard termed a “free and independent life”.” (Bernston and Cacioppo 459). Walter Cannon then extended the said viewpoint by referring the word homeostasis “to the processes by which the constancy of the fluid matrix is maintained” (Bernston and Cacioppo 459). The studies of Cannon encompass the significant concepts of homeostatic regulation of visceral systems and adaptive regulation of dimensions like blood pressure “that serve to maintain the necessary internal states required for survival” (Bernston and Cacioppo 460). These concepts critically shaped the modern views of autonomic regulation and control, Given a homeostatic perspective – and the fact that the autonomic branches generally exert opposing actions on end organs – the concept of reciprocal control of the autonomic branches was natural. A reciprocal pattern of autonomic control would maximize autonomic resources in the maintenance of a homeostatic set point. The concepts of homeostasis and reciprocal control figured prominently in the development of modern perspectives of autonomic function (Bernston and Cacioppo 460). These concepts of homeostasis were also observed by Fulton in his studies in physiology in 1949. Hill (96) defines homeostasis as “the process by which an organism maintains a fairly constant internal body environment like constant body temperature or blood sugar level.” Organisms develop their ability to establish within their body conditions differently from their environment under drastic conditions through phylogenetic development. Coined by Walter Bradford Cannon, homeostasis deals with either an open or closed system of a living organism with the use of multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments and regulation mechanisms as conceptualized by Claude Bernard in 1965 (Long). Also referred as “stability through constancy,” homeostasis is a model of physiological regulation that has dominated physiology and medicine since Claude Bernard introduced its critical function in organisms. Sterling (17) states that on this model, “physicians reason that when a parameter deviates from its setpoint value, some internal mechanism must be broken. Consequently, they design therapies to restore the inappropriate value to normal.” In order to regulate the internal environment, basic processes commonly occur to all regulatory systems including some imbalance, some detector or detectors which sense deviations from stable levels, some central processing system such as the hypothalamus, effectors capable of remedying the imbalance which can be involuntary or reflexive, complex learned behaviors particularly as aid in maintaining a balance, and planning external aids to deal with future imbalances (Long). According to Bernston and Cacioppo (460), several processes add to the relative constancy of internal states, These includes peripheral processes such as buffering systems of the blood that oppose perturbations in plasma pH and the inherent elasticity of the vasculature that tends to minimize pressor variations due to changes in blood volume. These mechanisms are included in the general class of peripheral autoregulatory processes that contribute to stability in physiological dimensions. For instance, the role of the kidney in blood pressure regulation functions is measured with the increase in blood volume and associated blood pressure that corresponds to the state of renal glomerular filtration and dieresis, which leads to a compensatory decline in vascular volume. In addition, temperature regulation is essential in understanding the process of homeostasis. It starts by detecting the temperature with the use of detectors through the hot and cold receptors on the surface of the skin. The detectors are found in the anterior hypothalamus and exhibit reactions corresponding to the temperature sensed. For example, warming leads to panting and sweating and cooling leads to huddling and shivering. The preoptic region increases the firing rate when heated while the cooling of the anterior hypothalamus reduces sweating but sharp rise in temperature. The electrical stimulation of anterior hypothalamus leads to same behavior as heating. On the other hand, the effectors mode of action includes the release of thyrotropic hormones from anterior pituitary and the release of epinephrine as controlled by the hyphothalamic. Cold-blooded animals regulate temperature by changing its area of dwelling while warm-blooded animals usually regulate their temperature by fluffing out their hair or feathers to cool down and demonstrate sweating or licking its body when the temperature is high. Other animals perform gross movement to regulate low temperatures. Moreover, food regulation helps establish homeostasis. With this process, stomach contractions and humoral factors act as detectors. For instance, food intake is regulated by meal spacing instead of eating a lot in every meal (Long). Also, animals exhibit water regulation through the continual ingestion, excretion and secretion of water in order to get rid of wastes and regulate temperature. The detectors of temperature through water regulation is composed of oral-pharyngeal factors such as taste, osmoreceptors, local cooling and muscle feedback and osmotic pressure or “the movement of water across membrane to establish equal concentrations of salt solution” (Long). The effectors are made to function by the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei which synthesize the antidiurectic hormones or ADH. As a result, urine concentration is increased and thus conserves water (Long). Since homeostasis is commonly associated with physiology, it is important to understand its difference with psychological homeostasis. Kalat (375) maintains that in the discipline of psychology, the concept of homeostasis acts as a drive that motivates an individual to activate and direct a specific behavior, The idea of homeostasis that we are motivated to seek a state of equilibrium, which is not zero stimulation. For example, people make an effort to maintain a fairly constant body temperature, a steady body weight, a certain amount of water in the body, a moderate amount of sensory experience, and so on. Motivated behaviors do not maintain exact constancy because our behavior often anticipates future needs. To fully understand this concept, one can dwell an inspiration from certain situations wherein a person might consider eating a large breakfast even when he is not hungry only because he knows that he has no time to eat lunch later in the day due to a busy schedule. Another example is the common behavior of sweating when an individual is angry or frightened, also known as cold sweat, even when the person has not yet commence in doing any vigorous actions that might heat the body. In a study by Fletcher (80) about homeostasis as an explanatory principle in psychology, he emphasized the significance of homeostasis to help an organism maintain stability or uniformity in their body states, By an extension of the principle, it might be used to describe the already demonstrated tendency to maintain status at the mental level of behavior, even in anticipation of the disturbing conditions. Instances of the usefulness of the term are drawn from such fields as perception (constancy), habit formation, learning, reasoning, work level (level of aspiration), and personality adjustment, to explain such mechanisms as rationalization and compensation. Miller (448) reviewed Fletcher’s work and supported its claim that most of the defense mechanisms that represent reactions of human behavior under stressful circumstances can be appreciated more if the observer will focus on one general explanatory principle instead of describing each behavior as isolated principles. Moreover, there is a noted lapse in the time of recovery between mental states. The parasympathetic and sympathetic systems are the main mechanisms involved in the recovery of the perception of an individual. These divisions of the nervous system function oppositely from each other yet complement one another instead of being antagonistic. It can be said that sympathetic division acts as an accelerator while the parasympathetic division acts as a stopper. Shapiro (2) noted that homeostasis is essential to survival since “If our bodies do not maintain themselves within certain tolerances we cannot function. Growing through creative change is also critical. If we cannot adapt to shifts in our environment we cannot function either.” He explained that there is a continuous dynamic tension between homeostasis and creative change. Internal balance can be affected by too much change, while too little changes can result to stagnation. With the constant exposure of humans to the strong impact of news about disasters and difficulties, the tendency to focus on homeostasis becomes habitual. More so, the human body tries to restore homeostasis by adjusting its physiological processes whenever it is interrupted as a response to stressors. With the help of a stress adaptation mechanism particularly the activation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis together with the autonomous nervous system and endocrine reactions of the body, homeostasis is continued. However, extreme stressors that demands long lasting adjustments “can cause severe imbalance of this steady state. This might cause not only psychological distress but also psycho-somatic disorders” (Winkler). Erskine (1) defined homeostasis as “the opposite of change and growth; it is a continuing balancing to maintain equilibrium. Growth and change is a challenge because human beings are pulled by two opposing forces: homeostasis and physis.” He underscores the vitality of the psychological structures that provide a sense of equilibrium in humans or the need to undergo specific mental states like equilibrium, stability, continuity and predictability. Structural hunger or the cravings and strivings of human beings that establish their psychological needs affect how people organize their perception of experiences. The other kinds of particular needs are stimulus hunger and relationship hunger, and these psychological needs are all attributes of a Transactional Analysis theory of motivation. Erskine (1) listed these non-conscious hungers as “the motivations determining physiological, affective, cognitive and behavioral responses to all of life’s situations.” Consequently, human beings find it difficult to accept change, often perceive it as a challenge and an uncomfortable process that may undermine their sense of equilibrium. The nature to prefer steady habits, behaviors and relationships are innate therefore relinquishing people’s personal perspectives, frames of reference, or beliefs are considered as complex mental structures of humans that are needed to maintain psychological equilibrium. Erskine (1) maintains that “homeostasis involves a balancing of the organism, a return to the familiar. When forces in the external environment stimulate change too quickly, there is an innate reaction that counteracts pressures to change.” Hence change, growing and evolution is constant, an unavoidable fact that all living organisms must face while concurrently attempting to maintain equilibrium. Further studies about psychological homeostasis have been conducted over the years. DePaolo explored on anger, a strong emotion, as a psycho-biological adaptation and recommended ways that psychologists can utilize and incorporate it into the normal counseling process. He identified adaptive anger “as a homeostatic adjustment by which anxiety, depression and ego diffusion can be temporarily ameliorated in order to facilitate symptomatic improvement and self-restoration for the client.” (DePaolo). However, the result of the study was highly criticized since this emotion is seldom been viewed as an adaptive device, rather it is more used in interpretation, redirection and correction. The necessity of incorporating social mores and the need for self regulation into clinical therapy is in conflict with the use of anger in a dynamic manner so that the process of emotional healing and growth can be facilitated. In the end, the aspects of anger in terms of self-regulation and homeostasis must be considered before addressing the requirements of such kind of assertive therapy. Besides, homeostasis is the main purpose of the internal environment. DePaolo maintains that, Keeping emotions, arousal levels and neuro-humoral volume within limits is what we all strive for. Sometimes that coincides with the expectations of the outside world and sometimes it does not. For the person who achieves high moral and performance goals, there is an internal satisfaction resulting from those achievements. Simply put, there is a resemblance between social behavior and internal reactions. For some people, there is a strict line that divides the internal and worlds. There are situations wherein a person encompassing a violent streak and feels threatened or detached might only achieve psychological stability by hurting or controlling others. That particular individual can only prohibit the possibility of threat or personal harm if he undergoes pathological control over people and events. As such, “psychic ability is maintained only by acting in ways that create instability in the social environment.” (DePaolo). In another study, Cummins (67) discussed the positive psychology and subjective well-being homeostasis. According to the author, the new field of positive psychology does not focus on pathology but on the benefits of enhancing subjective well-being that can help individuals develop their societal functioning. With this new discovery, the theory of Subjective Well-Being Homeostasis was developed, setting the limits to the malleability of subjective well-being. The theoretical basis of the said discipline was discussed by the author in the context of realistic therapeutic goals by testing the levels of subjective well-being in each individual. In addition, the factors or events that can affect subjective well-being were presented by Moss in support of Cummins’ work. According to Moss (1), Cummins assumed that homeostasis or subjective wellbeing involves several features, First, many events or factors, such as poverty, can affect subjective wellbeing. Second, as subjective wellbeing diverges from the preexisting levels, called the set-point, a system of processes are evoked. These processes return wellbeing to this set point, after some delay. Thus, in general, wellbeing varies within a range, centered on the set point. Third, occasionally, some event is particularly influential and wellbeing diverges from the range in which this homeostasis is usually effective, called homeostatic defeat. In these situations, it is critical to understand the development of wellbeing into being dependent on the capacity of a threat or opportunity instead of the homeostatic system. Furthermore, Cummins (70) identified various mechanisms that strengthen homeostasis. Some kinds of these mechanisms are tangible resources such as wealth and relationships. For example, when a person experience negative circumstances that compromises his immediate wellbeing, he can make use of some of his wealth to buy resources that can be employed to secure these problems. In the same way, he can develop the support and intimacy of other people in their life by entering marriage or building a family. Aside from tangible resources, other mechanisms are in the form of cognitive processes. For instance, “individuals can reconceptualize their goals to accommodate negative events. If debilitated by age or disease, they can derive meaning from other pursuits. They can trivialize the importance of adversities.” Cummins (71) noted that homeostatic system does not regulate specific emotions but core affect or moods. Core affect is defined as a “neurophysiological state that is experienced as a feeling or mood” (Moss 1). Unlike emotions, core affect does not connect to any specific object or event; it is an abstract phenomenon that represents a more general feeling. Cummins (71) called this particular core affect as homeostatically protected mood which combines happiness, excitement and contentment. Nevertheless, the concept of homeostasis in the discipline of psychology is similar to that of the biological action of homeostasis in the study of physiology. The ability of human beings to control unpleasant situations is a natural reaction which allows the mental states of individuals to maintain equilibrium through neural and physical processes. Through these adaptive responses, humans are able to express their emotions at normal levels and maintain equanimity. It is essential to consider that it is human nature for individuals to lose the synchrony of their psychological state when they are subliminally or consciously faced with long term threats or stressful situations which psychological homeostasis can help to stabilize again. Works Cited Bernston, Gary G. & Cacioppo, John T. “From Homeostasis to Allodynamic Regulation”. In: J.T. Cacioppo, L.G. Tassinary & G.G, Bernston (eds.), Handbook of Psychophysiology, 2nd ed. pp. 459-481. Cambridge University Press. 2000. Print. Cummins, Robert A. “Positive Psychology and Subjective Well-Being Homeostasis: A Critical Examination of Congruence”. Social Indicators Research Series. 51 (2012): 67-86. DePaolo, Robert. Adaptive Anger – a Homeostatic Factor in Psychotherapy. 29 Oct. 2009. Web. 23 Nov. 2012. Erskine, Richard G. “The Challenges of Change and Growth”. Integrative Psychotherapy. n.d. Web. 24 Nov. 2012. Fletcher, John M. “Homeostasis as an Explanatory Principle: John M. Fletcher”. Psychological Review XLIX (1942): 80-87. Print. Hill, Grahame. A Level Psychology Through Diagrams. Oxford University Press. 2001. Print. Kalat. James. W. Introduction to Psychology. Cengage Learning. 2010. Print. Long, Charles J. Psychological Homeostasis. University of Memphis website. n.d. Web. 24 Nov. 2012. Miller, Milton L. “Homeostasis as an Explanatory Principle: John M. Fletcher”. Psychoanalytic Quarterly. 12 (1948): 448. Print. Moss, Simon. Set Point Theory. 28 Dec. 2010. Web. 23 Nov. 2012. Shapiro, Alison B. Getting Out of the Way: The Balance Between Homeostasis and Growth. 15 Mar. 2011. Web. 25 Nov. 2012. Sterling, Peter. “Principles of Allostasis: Optimal Design, Predictive Regulation, Pathophysiology, and Rational Therapeutics.” In: J. Schulkin (ed.), Allostasis, Homeostasis and the Costs of Physiological Adaptation. pp. 17-65. Cambridge University Press. 2004. Print. Winkler. Martin. Homeostasis. 29 Aug. 2008. Web. 25 Nov. 2012. Read More