Stress and Its Relationship to Human Health - Literature review Example

Stress and Its Relationship to Human Health Total Number of Words: 2,754 Chapter I – Introduction Stress is one of the major contributing factors of “an unhealthy state of body and mind” (International Stress Management Association, 2014). In line with this, roughly 75% of the U.S. adult population is currently experiencing some forms of stress whereas 91% of the adult population in Australia had experienced the adverse health consequences of stress at least at one point in their lives (Global Organization for Stress, 2014). Between 2010 to 2011, as much as 1,152,000 people in UK had experienced stress and that 400,000 of these cases contributed to work-related diseases (International Stress Management Association, 2014). In the case of the Republic of Ireland, the Central Statistics Office reported that at least 13,000 people in this country have suffered from work-related stress back in 2009 (Dobbins, 2010). Managing excessive stress is one of the main challenges that most healthcare professionals are concerned with worldwide (Everly & Lating, 2013: 4). To learn more about the relationship between stress and human health, it is necessary to first identify the main causes of stress. For this reason, the first part of the literature review start by identifying and discussing internal and external stressors followed by analyzing the anatomical and physiological explanation behind the effects of stress on human health. Eventually, the literature review will focus on discussing the relationship between stress and human health in general terms. Chapter II – Literature Review 2.1 Internal and External Stressors Life’s stressors can be classified as either internal or external. In line with this, external stressors are all about environmental factors that are not within the control of a person whereas internal stressors are negative feelings or negative thoughts that can adversely affect the health of a person (Mitchell & Haroun, 2012: 288; Nerby & Otis, 2010: 111). Through the use of time management and problem-solving skills, internal stressors can be easily controlled by the person who has negative feelings or thoughts (Mitchell & Haroun, 2012: 288). In general, good examples of external stressor include becoming exposed to negative events like divorce or break-ups, war, natural calamity, work-related pressure, and terrorism among others (Contrada & Baum, 2011: 2). Climate change such as excessive cold and heat are also a good example of external stressor that can cause illnesses and untimely deaths on humans (Hajat et al., 2014; Moini, 2012: 183). Living in an urban city can also be considered as an external stressor since a lot of people who lives in urban places are subject to a lot of economic and social pressures (Lederbogen et al., 2011). Specifically the past September 11 terrorist attacked at the World Trade Centre back in 2001 is one of the best examples of an external event that can cause a person to suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Seirmarco et al., 2012). Another historical event that can cause PTSD includes the war between the US Afghanistan and Iraq (Brancu et al., 2014). As a common knowledge, the September 11 crisis has made millions of people suffer from serious trauma (i.e. near-death situation, untimely death of a family member, relatives, or a special someone). As a consequence of the traumatic incidence, there are some people who may have remained unable to cope with chronic depression or anxiety and sleeping problems (Seirmarco et al., 2012). Among the few good examples of internal stressors include the process of suffering from traumas caused by racial or gender discrimination and/or chronic strains (Thoits, 2010). Another good example of internal stressor is when there are hormonal imbalances particularly in the case of a woman suffering from pre-natal depression (Field, 2011). Other physical factors that can trigger stress include a sudden decrease in the concentration of oxygen, prolonged physical activities, physical injuries and infections, disturbing noises whereas other psychological factors that are directly related to stress include guilty feeling, grief, anxiety and depression, anger, and fear (Moini, 2012: 183). Regardless of the type of stressors, stress can either be acute or chronic. In line with this, Borkowski (2009: 233) explained that acute stresses are short-term reaction to internal or external threats whereas chronic stresses are often caused by long-term or continuous stressors in life. A good example of acute stress includes temporary migraine or chest pain (Olpin & Hesson, 2010) and experiencing earthquakes (Dimsdale, 2008) whereas a good example of chronic stress includes work-related stress (Borkowski, 2009: 233). 2.2 Anatomical and Physiological Explanation of Stress on Human Health In general, the main emotional areas found in the brain are considered as the main mediator between human health and stress (Ganzel, Morris, & Wethington, 2010; McEwen & Gianaros, 2010). Aside from detecting internal and external stressors, the brain functions as the main organ which is responsible in reacting, coping and recovering from stress (McEwen & Gianaros, 2010). In line with this, Holzel et al. (2010) explained that the amygdale which is found in the brain structure is directly responsible on how each person would response to internal or environmental stressors. It simply means that the brain is somehow responsible when it comes to the ability of each person to cope or adapt with internal or external stressors in life (McEwen & Gianaros, 2010). Homeostatic balance can be attained each time a person is in a relax mood (Fink, 2010: 402). In the presence of external stressors, Lovejoy and Barsyte (2011: 5) mentioned that the homeostasis within the physiological body can be subjected to great imbalances. On the contrary, there are also cases wherein both the presence of internal and external stressors can trigger imbalances in the physiological homeostasis (Fink, 2010: 402; Dimsdale, 2008). For example, each time the brain senses that there is external danger; the hypothalamus reacts by sending physiological responses as a result of an increased in the secretion of adrenalin hormone and a significant increase in the sympathetic activities which includes the release of both epinephrine and norepinephrine (Moini, 2012: 182 – 183). In general, the human body tends to react to external stressors by unconsciously switching on the sympathetic nervous system as well as the release of the adrenocortical hormone (Robertson et al., 2012: 291). Eventually, the corticotropin-releasing factor which is located in the central nervous system (CNS) is responsible in stimulating both adrenocortical and autonomic responses (Robertson et al., 2012: 291). Specifically the release of both adrenaline and/or noradrenaline by the adrenal glands is responsible for the “fight, flight, or freeze” responses (Boundless, 2013: 1468). In line with this, Moini (2012: 183) explained that it is the “fight or flight” responses that causes a sudden change in the levels of blood glucose, fatty acids, blood glycerol, breathing rate, heart rate, blood pressure, blood flow, dilation of pupils and air passages. 2.3 Stress and Its Relationship to Human Health The word health has been defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as “not merely the absence of disease or infirmity but a positive state of complete physical, mental and social well-being” (Semmer, 2007). On the other hand, stress is defined as an environmental or situational stimulus that can cause a person to suffer from great distress (Basavanthapa, 2011: 58). In most cases, stress is considered as a significant factor that can negatively affect the health of each person and leads to the development of different kinds of diseases (Holzel et al., 2010). Often times, people who are living a stressful life are the ones who often complain about experiencing pain or poor health conditions (van den Berg et al., 2010). Stress is often times related to the development of various diseases related to mental and physical health (Steptoe & Kivimaki, 2012; Ramey, Bratter and Gorman, 2011; Henderson et al., 2011; Ramey et al., 2011; Brohan & Thornicroft, 2010; Knudsen et al., 2010; Thoits, 2010; Williams & Davidson, 2009; Dimsdale, 2008). In general, exposure to chronic stress such as external heat can increase the risks wherein a person could suffer from the health consequences of hypertension or increased blood pressure (Hundekari, 2012; McCowan et al., 2012). Due to the fact that internal and external stressors can trigger the development of an arterial hypertension, a lot of people who undergoes continuous stress often times suffer from different kinds of cardiovascular problems (Hundekari, 2012; Schulz, Gori, & Munzel, 2011). This further explains why most of the common types of physical illnesses associated with stress include myocardial infarction and myocardial ischemia (Williams & Davidson, 2009; Dimsdale, 2008), acute coronary syndrome (Williams & Davidson, 2009) or coronary heart disease (Hundekari, 2012; Steptoe & Kivimaki, 2012; Ramey et al., 2011). In relation to cardiovascular diseases, several past and current studies have also highlighted the relationship between stress and ischemic stroke (Stuller, Jarrett, & DeVries, 2012; Balkaya et al., 2011). Therefore, in the long run, people who are exposed to long-term high levels of stress are facing higher risks of mortality and morbidity (Schulz, Gori, & Munzel, 2011). Stress-related illnesses are not limited to cardiovascular problems. For instance, some people tend to overeat when subjected to stressful events or being under pressured (Kaku, 2010). For this reason, stress can sometimes indirectly leads to the development of hyperglycaemia or type 2 diabetes (Ely, Zavaskis, & Wilson, 2011; Kaku, 2010). After examining the impact of bungee jumping on the research participants’ glucose level and overall pancreatic β-cell functioning, immune responses, and insulin resistance, Kruyt, van Westerloo and DeVries (2012) found out the research participants’ stress hormones, insulin resistance, and glucose levels significantly increases whereas their immune responses suddenly decreases before and after the bungee jump. On the other hand, the research participants’ pancreatic β-cell functioning suddenly decreases before the bungee jump (Kruyt, van Westerloo, & DeVries, 2012). Excessive work-related stress can also contribute to workers’ increased risks in developing hypercholesterolemia (43%) and hypertension (28%) (Ramey et al., 2011). In almost some cases, a prolonged exposure to stress can make a person suffer from having a suppressed immune system (Boundless, 2013: 1469). Each time a person is exposed to excessive stress, a hormone called cortisol which is commonly released during stressful events can suppress the generation of cytokines (Boundless, 2013: 1884). Because of the alteration that happens in the white blood cells, people who are living a stressful life can easily suffer from bodily infections and severe colds. Likewise, stress can also trigger the development of inflammatory diseases (Jurgens & Johnson, 2012). After examining the relationship between perceived discrimination, racial awareness and self-rated health among the white and black Americans, Bratter and Gorman (2011) found out that there is a huge gap between the self-rated health among the white and black Americans. Even though both the white and black Americans can be emotionally harmed by racial discrimination, it is the black Americans who are more sensitive to their socio-economic status in life (Bratter & Gorman, 2011). In general, becoming exposed to different types of workplace discrimination can cause a person to suffer from serious mental health problems (Brohan & Thornicroft, 2010). In line with this, the common mental health problems related to work-related stress include not only anxiety but also a high level of depression (Henderson et al., 2011; Knudsen et al., 2010). Based on the anatomical and physiological explanation on how stress can affect health, the human brain can either develop allostasis or allostatic load when responding to internal and external stressors (McEwen & Gianaros, 2010). In line with this, McEwen and Gianaros (2010) explained that the clinical term allostasis is referring to a state wherein homeostatic balance is maintained through proper adaptation to stress whereas allostatic load pertains to a situation wherein homeostatic imbalances can lead to the development of various health illnesses. Because of proper adaptation technique, some people are able to easily cope with stress. 2.4 Effective Solutions that will lessen the Adverse Impact of Stress on Health There are quite a lot of interventions which can be made to help lessen the adverse health impact of stress. Based on the research findings of van den Berg et al. (2010), it was noted that the process of living in an environment with at least 3 kilometer radius of green space is effective in terms of decreasing the adverse physical and mental health impacts of stress on a person. Another effective way of minimizing work-related stress is to provide the workers with at least “one-day interactive workshop” to enable the workers learn more about effectively managing mental health problems (Madan et al., 2013: 217). Based on the randomized controlled trial that was conducted by Schneider et al. (2012) on a total of 201 African American men and women who were diagnosed with coronary heart diseases, the use of mind-and-body intervention such as the transcendental meditation is effective in terms of decreasing blood pressure as well as psychosocial stressors which eventually decrease the patients’ risks of mortality caused by myocardial infarction and stroke. In general, a mindfulness stress reduction programme includes not only yoga but also qigong (Tsang et al., 2013). In line with this, Vollestad, Sivertsen and Nielsen (2011) purposely investigated the impact of using the mindfulness-based stress reduction technique on a total of 76 people with anxiety disorders. Based on the research findings, Vollestad, Sivertsen and Nielsen (2011) conclude that the use of the mindfulness-based stress reduction technique can serve as a mediator when it comes to decreasing the levels of worrying and anxiety on patients. After examining the impact of using complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) such as aromatherapy and acupressure and cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) when managing the symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress among the elementary school teachers in Hong Kong, Tsang et al. (2013) found out that the mere act of combining the use of CAM and CBT is more effective when it comes to decreasing the elementary school teachers’ levels of anxiety, depression and stress as compared to the use of a single technique alone. With regards to stress caused by PTSD, encouraging the patients to receive social group support can somehow help them recover from trauma (Brancu et al., 2014; National Institute of Mental Health, 2014). Chapter IV – Conclusion and Recommendations Although often neglected, stress is a serious public concerns because it can lead to the development of mental health problems related to acute and chronic anxiety and depression as well as numerous physical health conditions such as cardiovascular problems and coronary heart diseases (Hundekari, 2012; Schulz, Gori, & Munzel, 2011; Williams & Davidson, 2009), ischemic stroke (Stuller, Jarrett, & DeVries, 2012; Balkaya et al., 2011), type 2 diabetes (van Westerloo and DeVries, 2012; Ely, Zavaskis, & Wilson, 2011; Kaku, 2010), high blood pressure or hypertension (Hundekari, 2012; McCowan et al., 2012), inflammatory diseases (Jurgens & Johnson, 2012), hypercholesterolemia (Ramey et al., 2011), and viral infections like colds and cough (Boundless, 2013: 1884) among others. Earlier, it was mentioned that it is possible for each person to learn the proper way of adapting to internal and external stressors. For this reason, it is necessary for each health care professional to learn more about the proper and most effective way of managing stress. In the process of learning more about stress management programmes, health care professionals can play a significant role in effectively reducing the risks of mortality and morbidity rates caused by being exposed to serious chronic life-related stressors. A good example of stress management intervention includes encouraging people who are undergoing stressful life events to live in an environment close to the nature. In the process of being closer to trees and plants, the long-term physical and mental health consequences of stress can be reduced significantly. Other ways of effectively managing stress is to engage oneself in a “one-day interactive workshop” (Madan et al., 2013: 217), engaging oneself in a transcendental meditation programme (Schneider et al., 2012), a mindfulness stress reduction programme such as yoga and qigong (Tsang et al., 2013; Vollestad, Sivertsen & Nielsen, 2011), learning more about the use of proper breathing techniques, the use of CAM like aromatherapy and acupressure and cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) (Tsang et al., 2013). Even though all these stress management techniques have been proven effective in the past, health care professionals should bare in mind that not all these techniques may equally work well to all patients. Earlier, it was mentioned that each person has a different coping and adaptation ability when dealing with stress. For this reason, health care professionals should educate people who are going through a stressful life about their options when managing stress. 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