Individual's Reaction Towards Psychotropic Drugs - Article Example

?The study to be appraised is en d "Sex and Gender as Critical Variables in Feminist Psychopharmacology Research and Pharmacotherapy" by Hamiltonand Jensvold (1995). Introduction Statement of the Problem The objective of the study and the concern the authors intended to address were clear. The study's aim was to promote familiarization among physicians and non-physicians with regard to variance in sex and gender in the aspect of an individual's reaction towards psychotropic drugs. Essentially, the author of the study intended to investigate evidence indicating that men and women metabolize drugs in a different manner. Source of the Problem The research was able to provide a clear understanding as to why the research was necessary to be conducted. The information provided was sufficient to support the study's statement of the problem. The source of the research's problem statement can be associated to literature presenting the documented disadvantage that females experience in terms of health care and research. The concern indicated that most studies prefer using men as subjects for study, as well as the need to attain equality in research and clinical practice concerning healthcare for both males and females. Studies in the research indicated that women are more inclined to using medications than men, which necessitates that need to guarantee not just the safety, but also the efficaciousness of drugs among males and females. In that regard, several policies issued by the Food and Drug Administration, as well as the General Accounting Office, stated that clinical trials concerning medications would include females and the need to analyze data by sex has been reinforced. A case in point is the prevalent use of antidepressants among women in a survey made in 1984, due to the high rate of depression cases among females. Women have been technically "under represented" in the process of testing drugs. In instances when women were included, sufficient data analysis that would differentiate the variance between males and females were not conducted. Significance of the Problem The authors of the research were able to expound as to how the research would significantly contribute to the body of literature present concerning psychopharmacological drug effects that differ among males and females. The study aimed in identifying the variance of drug effects in terms of efficacy and side effects among men and women. In a psychiatric point of view, variance in drug effects relative to gender was deemed irrelevant. On the aspect of depression, it was stated that the variable "gender" does not largely contribute in treating depression. In this regard, the study's significance was directed to the fact that gender can be attributed to the psychopharmacological variance among men and women. Feasibility of the problem for study In assessing whether the problem statement can be feasibly addressed, the authors were able to justify specific parameters that made the research realistic and doable. Even though gender, as a variable, is highly complex in nature, the researchers focused on the aspect of gender relative variance concerning three types of psychotropic medications. These are: 1) antipsychotics; 2) anti-anxiety agents; and 3) antidepressants. Scope of the Literature Review The scope of the study's literature review was sufficient, as the authors were able to present relevant data that would support the problem statement. The authors expounded on research that tackle the lack of equity in health care research and practice in comparing both genders, as well as the studies concerning the necessity to recognize the value of both sexes and genders in drug testing and clinical practice. Theoretical Context of the Problem One aspect in which the study focused in is the current literature pertaining to how drug metabolism can be associated to the treatment outcomes among patients of both genders. In the aspect of psychopharmacology, it has been identified that two relevant factors were considered. These are: 1) pharmacokinetics, which entails the process as to how drugs are applied and removed from the specific site of action, dealing with bioavailability, metabolism, elimination and absorption; and 2) pharmacodynamics, which entails the mechanisms of the action itself. Another important aspect to consider is the individual's degree of response to a specific treatment. With this in mind, the authors aimed to assess the variance in treatment outcomes based on the aforementioned principles. Hypotheses / Research Questions The study did not present a hypothesis to prove or disprove in the course of the research. On the other hand, the research question was not clearly identified in the study. Although it has been implied in that the researchers aimed to examine the variance in treatment outcomes among males and females. The authors could have stated this clearly to set proper expectations of the study's intent. Variables of Interest The identified variables of interest in the study are females, psychotropic medications, treatment outcomes and the aspects of pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, as well as confounding factors. Methodology Description of the Design The methodology aspect of the study was highly descriptive in nature. The research was conducted in a manner wherein the authors evaluated and analyzed various literatures concerning pharmacokinetics, treatment outcomes and the effects of confounding and contextual factors in the field of pscyhopharmacology. In addition, the authors also focused on studies that shed light on clinical practices that delved on depression. Although it was not indicated, the methodology seemed like a case study research conducted through thematic analysis. The process of thematic analysis entails reviewing numerous literatures, identifying key pointers and generating themes based on the collected data to produce new information. However, the authors of the study did not indicate the manner as to how the research was conducted which is why the researcher had to deduce based on observation. Control of extraneous variables The identified extraneous variable in the study being appraised is gender. This can then be associated to a subject variable, wherein the gender of the individuals taken into consideration implies a high probability that outcomes would be impacted. Assessing Internal and External Validity In terms of evaluating the study's reliability and validity of data, the authors were able to validate that the subject matters pointed out through the course of the study showed consistency as supported by various sources that were cited accordingly. In terms of internal validity, there was no experimentation conducted which is why the causal relationship of the research's variables could not be internally validated. However, in the aspect of external validity, the authors were able to present that the data included can be validly generalized. In the studies presented and the sources used by the authors, they were able to identify themes that produced similar outcomes. Sampling Design There was no indication in the study of a specific sampling design for the research since the authors’ simply collected and collated data prior to evaluation and analysis. No experiment took place, which is why a sampling design was not inclusive in the study. Measurement Instruments As indicated, the authors' methodology did not entail an experiment which is why there is no research tool utilized for the purpose of measurement. The thematic analysis process of the study presented that the researchers focused on topics or themes that were highlighted in the study to address the gap in current literature pertaining to the variance in psychotropic treatment outcomes among males and females. In that regard, the study's measurement tool can be attributed to the utilization of secondary information. Secondary information are data that was produced for another objective. Reliability and Validity of Measurement Instruments The data used in the study can be considered valid in the sense that the information used were aligned to the present study's research questions. As a form of validation, it is important to identify how the data used in the secondary source was produced, who generated the data and what purpose that specific data serves. It is also important to ascertain the consistency of the data presented throughout the research, as well as when compared with other literature. Measurement Error On the aspect of measurement error, since no experiment took place, the variance between the data the authors aimed to produce in comparison to the data indicated in the process of measurement were null. Possible sources of error could be attributed to inconsistency of information gathered based on the study's sources. However, through thematic analysis, the existence of measurement error is not probable since the researchers' basis of will be based on the emerging themes. Ethical considerations In terms of ethical considerations, the authors of the study took careful considerations in appropriately citing sources in each information that was presented. This was done to ensure that plagiarism was not committed. There was no need to consult for ethical approval and to acquire a written consent to abide by ethical standards since the study was highly descriptive in nature solely based on secondary data. Data Analysis Data analysis procedures Although there was no presentation from the authors as to how they were able to evaluate and analyze the data they gathered, the researcher’s observations were that thematic analysis was used. Since the study was highly descriptive in nature and focused on providing key topics that would support the premise that gender variance is important when assessing the outcomes of psychotropic treatments, the authors of the study aimed at providing evidence from several studies and dissertations that are in line with their premise. Essentially, the information collated was analyzed to produce data with regard to clinically meaningful effects of gender and hormones relative to sex in the process of drug metabolism, pharmacokinetics and the treatment outcomes. In addition, the medication’s benefits and side effects were discussed as well. Presentation of results; Use of tables The presentation of the study’s findings were vividly discussed in boxes of texts, there were not tables used to visually present the statistics that were gathered from the dissertations used to support the present study. However, a visual representation in a form of a figure was presented that shows a flow chart as to how drugs produce its outcomes. The authors presented two figures: one is a biomedical model and the other is direct effects model that has been modified. The context of the visual representation aimed to promote that recognizing the expectancies of the subject would entail placebo-controls and single blinded research methodologies, where as double blinded methodologies were culled from the expectancies of observers. Another figure presented a more complex, contextualized and mediated effects model wherein other factors were considered, which is essentially the premise that the authors were proving. This model showed that drugs would be channeled to patients, but prior to the perceived outcomes, several factors come into play, such as: the proximal content concerning pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics; predictor variables; predictor variables; expectancies of the subject as well as relative psychological variables; sociocultural impacts in the form of gender; and observer variable. Interpretation of results Data interpretation were primarily expounded into further discussion based on the visual representations included within the course of the study, to support the present study’s premise that gender variance affects psychotropic treatment outcomes. The manner in which the findings were interpreted showed that women are more inclined to experience a higher degree of contact to chronic stressors in comparison to men, which is very important to consider in the process of female pharmacotherapy processes. The authors of the study were also able to identify that there is a great need to understand the correlation between gender and pharmacotherapy must be evaluated in psychobiological research. In essence, the objective of such a cause is to optimize pharmacotherapy for both sexes through the process of reducing side effects and capitalize on the benefits that would be acquired. Communicating Findings Discussion of findings The discussions of the results were clearly presented in the conclusion part, although since the research objectives were not clearly stated in the beginning, the findings just covered all the literature presented throughout the course of the study. It would have been better if the research question was clearly stated as it would serve as the guideline or the direction as to how the authors could have discussed the results of the study. The authors presented that women have a tendency to utilize psychotropic drugs at a greater extent as females have been found to be more reliant to medications for the purpose of therapeutic management. The research highlighted that there is a need to increase recognition in the aspect of gender and sex as crucial factors in pharmacotherapy research. Limitations The study’s key limitation is that the data used in the research were all based on secondary sources. The information they gathered would have been validated and further substantiated if the authors conducted a triangulation, wherein the themes emerged through thematic analysis were then tested in a small experiment concerning gender variance effects in pharmacotherapy outcomes. In addition, the authors of the study focused on psychotropic drugs, mainly antipsychotics, anti-anxiety agents and anti depressants. In this regard, the study only focused on the benefits concerning mental health. However, the bulk of the discussion focused on the aspect of depression, as opposed to the other two aforementioned drugs. There is also no age group considered in the study, which can also be a determinant for psychological variance in drug outcomes. Alternative explanations The authors of the study were promoting the need to develop research methods that are more contextually sensitive. Such recourse would then help progress research quality concerning psychopharmacology. This would help bring to light that confounding variables are essential in assessing drug outcomes. The authors emphasized that the process of optimizing pharmacotherapy outcomes for females through psychotropic drugs would not just affect psychopharmacology research practices, but it could also positively reinforce research development concerning other aspects of clinical treatment practice. In this regard, the bigger picture presents that in the process of considering sex and gender in health care research and practice, development in the health of females would generally gain traction. Implications for the practitioner The implications of the study for health care practitioners is highly beneficial, although the findings of the study were still vague as there were no specific outcome that was presented or a research objective to be addressed. Based on the direction of the study concerning the pharmacotherapy outcome variance based on gender and sex in healthcare research and practice, the implications would’ve been significant. In the process of identifying other confounding factors that impact the outcome of pharmacotherapy, practitioners would be able to critically reduce negative side effects and optimize drug usage through maximizing benefits. Taking into consideration the facts presented that women are more inclined to use medications as compared to men, as well as evidence showed that women are more exposed and affected by chronic stressors, perhaps further research can be conducted to focus on what specific medications are ideal for women considering the aforementioned variables. This would then help improve overall health care, especially women health. However, due to the limitations of the present study and considering that the findings are still non-substantial, the gap in clinical practice still remains at large. Implications for future research The study being appraised focused on a topic that is not greatly recognized in the field of pharmacotherapy, which brings interest to the fact that gender and sex variance does affect treatment outcomes. The present study introduced the topic and supported it various literatures collected to support the notion, however further research can substantiate the results by identifying as to how sex and gender can improve health care research and practice. The present study brings to light the introduction of future research concerning a more contextualized, mediated-effects model that would focus on identifying the implications of sex and gender variance in the development of women’s mental health. Read More