Aggression: Comprehensive Review - Term Paper Example

? A Comprehensive Review of Aggression Teacher               A Comprehensive Review of Aggression Definition of Aggression and its Significance in the Study of Personality The medical dictionary defines merely as “hostile or destructive behavior or actions” (“Aggression,” Online Medical Dictionary, 2012). The topic of aggression is crucial to the study of the personality in that most violence, destruction and crime are brought about by aggressive behavior. Therefore, an insight into the etiology, the biochemistry and the treatment of aggression will hopefully foster an open mind towards individuals suffering from such an illness. Etiology of Aggression Freud associated the occurrence of aggression with a number of things, and one of these was the “death instinct” or the unconscious wish of every person to die (Boeree, 2009). Freud derived this from the idea that the goal of all people’s actions is “to be still, to be satisfied, to be at peace, to have no more needs” (Boeree, 2009). Without delving much on whether Freud’s idea of the death instinct is valid or not, it somehow makes sense if one says that the goal of all life is peace and satisfaction. Therefore, anything that seeks to disturb such peace and satisfaction will most likely result in frustration, and such frustration translates to an anger that leads to aggressive behavior. Aside from the death instinct, what Freud considers as “the most important motivating force” is the sex drive (Boeree, 2009). For adults and even for infants and children, the sex drive is the primary motivating force, but it should be noted that in Freudian psychology, what is sexual is not only all about orgasm but “all pleasurable sensation from the skin” such as kisses, caresses and other pleasurable tactile experiences (Boeree, 2009). It is therefore possible that anything that disrupts such sexual and pleasurable tactile experiences or anything that reduces in any way the pleasure derived from sex or the skin can lead to frustration. Frustration then leads to anger and the latter translates itself into aggression. Aside from the sex drive, another point that Freud points out as a possible source of aggression is the time in an infant’s life where he begins teething and biting on something, thus causing upset and a possible development of an “oral-aggressive personality” (Boeree, 2009). If one develops such a personality, the tendency is therefore the development of a life-long desire not only to bite on things and people in early childhood but also a general tendency to be argumentative, verbally aggressive, and sarcastic as one grows up into an adult (Boeree, 2009). In short, according to Freud, the adoption of the oral-aggressive personality translates as the creation of an aggressive individual from childhood. Any child, therefore, who focuses on the pain of teething and on the habit of biting at this stage is bound to become an aggressive man or woman someday. Moreover, according to Freud, that there are two drive complexes that are embodied in every human being – the life-building Eros and the life-destructive Thanatos (“Aggression,” Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, 2000). The life destructive complex, or Thanatos, is usually directed both outwards and inwards through aggressive behavior. If it is directed inwards it means it is against oneself, and if directed outwards, it is against others (Boeree, 2009). While Freud emphasizes the power of the sex drive, the death instinct and the possible development of the oral-aggressive personality in childhood in the development of aggressive behavior in adults, Alfred Adler disagrees with Freud on the sexual aspect of aggression, while emphasizing on his part the theory that the true cause of aggression is the “striving for perfection” (Cosner, 2002). This means that anything that frustrates one’s goal towards perfection becomes aggressive behavior. One’s striving for perfection can be disturbed if one’s plan for the future and one’s striving for goals are hampered by several factors. When this happens, there is a general tendency to resort to aggression in order to relieve oneself of frustration. Nevertheless, for Adler, there is nothing sexual in the etiology of aggressive behavior. Moreover, Adler emphasized that aggression stems more from conscious behavior rather than on the unconscious (Cosner, 2002). If Adler emphasized the striving for perfection as a cause of aggression, Carl Jung theorized that “the repressive function of religious morality is directly responsible for evil” and such evil may manifest itself as aggressive behavior (Boyle, 2009). The ego’s repressed urges are an indirect effect of social and religious norms, and these repressed urges are responsible for the evil of aggression. In fact, according to Jung, the two World Wars were a result of such repressed evil (Boyle, 2009). For Jung, evil, whether in the form of aggression or not, is not something supernatural in nature but something that people are basically capable of. Evil results from repression of urges. According to Jung, the instincts that one has “repressed and suppressed…gradually accumulate and in time…begin to influence consciousness” (Boyle, 2009). Simply speaking, the accumulated repressed desires would one day finally burst forth as highly destructive aggression. Therefore, as long as one does not acknowledge one’s repressed desires, they will always eventually turn into something evil and that evil is aggression (Boyle, 2009). According to Jung, the agents of such repression are modern Christianity and rationalism. Because of these two factors, human and animal urges are not addressed or acknowledged and are therefore constantly repressed and accumulated in the unconscious, where these urges develop into their evil potential (Boyle, 2009). Henry Murray’s theory on the etiology of aggression was somehow different from those of the aforementioned three psychologists – for Murray, aggression is a need that has to be fulfilled. Based on Murray’s theory of needs, aggression is simply one of the estimated 27 universal human needs, each of which requires fulfillment. Furthermore, if a certain need, such as aggression, is dominant in an individual, the need appears as a personality trait (“Aggression,” Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, 2000). Moreover, according to Murray, a need is “a potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances” (“Needs as Personality,” 2004). Murray’s concept of needs includes both primary or biological needs like food, water and sex; and secondary needs such as achievement, dominance, affiliation, and aggression. Furthermore, according to Murray, the human personality is shaped by the secondary needs, one of which is aggression. What shapes personality then is the extent to which an individual feels and hopes to fulfill the secondary needs (“Needs as Personality,” 2004). The particular need known as aggression is described as a need “to injure others” (“Psychogenic Needs,” 2012). Moreover, such needs are imposed upon the individual by a “press,” or a form of pressure which could either be an “alpha press,” or actual pressure from the environment, or “beta press,” or merely perceived pressure (“Psychogenic Needs,” 2012). Nevertheless, whether it is “alpha press” or “beta press,” the pressure on the individual to fulfill a particular need, like aggression, seems real and thus he responds to it accordingly (“Psychogenic Needs,” 2012). Course of Aggression The progress of aggression in humans, as well as in other mammalian species, is governed by the action of specific neurotransmitter systems including “serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, GABA, and neuropeptides [like] vasopressin and oxytocin” (Yanowitch & Coccaro, 2011). These neurotransmitters help to execute the basic components of behavior, and at the same time helps one to act based on previously known or learned behavioral states, while at the same time the neurotransmitters either increase or reduce the effects of such behavioral states (Yanowitch & Coccaro, 2011). Aggression may develop its course either as an impulsive type or premeditated. The impulsive type of aggression is evident among those with Intermittent Explosive Disorder, or IED, as well as those with Borderline Personality Disorder, or BPD. On the other hand, the premeditated type, or the type of aggression directed towards the fulfillment of a tangible goal is manifested in those with Antisocial Personality Disorder, or AsPD (Yanowitch & Coccaro, 2011). Nevertheless, the course of aggression in human beings is all about the combined action of various neurotransmitters. One of the neurotransmitters involved in aggression is serotonin, which is an “important regulator of mood” (Yanowitch & Coccaro, 2011). Although the action of serotonin as an agent of aggression is highly dependent on the presence of other chemicals, the reduction of serotonin levels in the emotion-modulating regions of the brain like the anterior cingulate cortex and the prefrontal cortex leads to a tendency towards impulsive aggressiveness (Yanowitch & Coccaro, 2011). Another neurotransmitter involved is Dopamine, or DA, which acts on the peripheral nervous system, specifically on both the central and sympathetic branches. DA has been linked to cognition, movement, sleep, mood, attention, learning and memory. Moreover, as the chemical responsible for neural reward pathways in drug use, sexual behavior and eating, increased neurotransmission with DA is associated with agitation and aggression (Yanowitch & Coccaro, 2011). A third neurotransmitter, Norepinephrine or Noradrenaline, is a stress hormone which primarily targets the regions of the brain associated with attention like the amygdale. Norepinephrine works in conjunction with adrenaline or epinephrine in order to produce the sympathetic responses of the body associated with the “fight-or-flight” response. In short, the major contribution of norepinephrine to aggressive behavior is the release of stored glucose in the body, the increase of blood flow towards the skeletal muscle, and the consequent increase of oxygen supply to the brain (Yanowitch & Coccaro, 2011). Another neurotransmitter, GABA, or gamma-aminobutyric acid, has a “critical and well-defined” role in the neurological systems of vertebrates. Although its possible role in the development of aggressive behavior is not as prominent as the aforementioned neurotransmitters, the role of GABA in schizophrenia, epilepsy, and pain may explain its role in the development of aggression (Yanowitch & Coccaro, 2011). Lastly, the course of aggressive behavior also depends on the action of peptides. The peptides CSF vasopressin and CSF oxytocin are both related inversely correlated with aggression. Moreover, the peptide metekephalin has been associated with self-injurious behavior as various amounts of it are found in the brain of suicide victims. Aside from the aforementioned peptides, codeine, morphine, and opioids may also increase aggression levels (Yanowitch & Coccaro, 2011). Treatment for Aggression According to Freud, there are several recommended modes of therapy for aggression. However, the main components of Freudian psychotherapy include five points. First, the patient must be in a relaxed atmosphere, where he is not afraid of ostracism or social judgment. Moreover, it would be better if the therapist prepared a room with “a physically relaxing couch, dim lights [and] sound-proof walls” (Boeree, 2009). Secondly, there must be the practice of “free association,” where the client will not have any restrictions as to what he wants to talk about, because, through free talking, the trained therapist will be able to spot certain clues to the client’s problems as well as solutions that he may have overlooked. Thirdly, there must be the practice of “resistance” during the talk, where the therapist calls the client’s attention every time the latter seems to deviate from the topic. Fourthly, the psychotherapy session for aggression must have a therapist who is adept at noticing parapraxes, or Freudian slips or slips of the tongue, which point out the client’s unconscious motives and feelings. Lastly, beyond psychotherapy there must be dream analysis, or the interpretation of the client’s recorded dreams, as the skilled therapist may be able to decipher the meaning and significance of the client’s dreams vis-a-vis the issues that he is dealing with at the moment (Boeree, 2009). For Adler, his theory on aggression based on the striving for perfection, one of the ways to treat aggression and mental problems is to emphasize the importance of Gemeinschaftsgefuhl – or “good will,” not Freud’s “will to power” – as the only way for man to be able to realize his full potential (Selesnick, 1995). Adler formulated this principle when he witnessed man’s unselfish duty towards his fellow beings during World War II, where Adler worked in the Austrian army medical corps. From the principle of goodwill, Adler believed that the key to resolving aggression and other mental problems is “free discussion,” which is done in relatively fewer sessions and are shorter than Freudian free association (Selesnick, 1995). Moreover, according to Adler, the duty of the therapist is “to interpret whenever it becomes apparent how the patient deceives himself in regard to his life style” (Selesnick, 1995). This is somehow similar to the “resistance” principle of Freud (Boeree, 2009). Aside from the aforementioned task of pointing out the patient’s slips, the therapist in Adler’s recommended setting for psychotherapy must possess “interest, warmth and activity” (Selesnick, 1995). As for Jung, who theorized that aggression takes root from repressed urges, the implication of his theory on aggression is that treatment is all about how to acknowledge all urges and how to deal with repressed ones. Moreover, based on the principles of Jungian psychotherapy, the individual who develops optimal capacity and achieves self-realization is one who can “integrate fully the many oppositional forces of conscious and unconscious components of [his] personality” (James, n.d.). One way to achieve such a goal of integration is through counseling. Such counseling is based on the principle of Jungian therapy which may be stated in either of these two ways: “the only law in Jungian psychology is that there is no law” and that “there are no simply yes and no answers” in such psychology (James, n.d.). One of the important components of Jungian psychotherapy is confession and catharsis, where the client owns his feelings and does not intellectualize his situation. Second, there must be the practice of “elucidation,” where the therapist dynamically interprets the client’s past, and evaluates the various possibilities on how he (the therapist) might subjectively interpret such information. Eventually, Jungian psychotherapy for aggression ends with “education,” where the therapist helps the client to be able to educate himself in all aspects of his life where he experiences a lack. There must also be moral support and encouragement (James, n.d.). For Murray, treatment is all about the gathering of facts about the patient and formulating a hypothesis based on the available facts, and then experimenting on whether the hypothesis is true or not. With the facts in hand, what should be done next is the conceptual scheme, which is “a condensed abstract representation…of the actuality of immediate experience,” and which includes everything essential and nothing unessential (Murray & McAdams, 2008). Moreover, it is also at this step that all general or miscellaneous attributes, driving forces and other variables are sought and identified. What follows the conceptual scheme is the second step – the methodological plan consisting of “interviews, tests and experimental procedures” (Murray & McAdams, 2008). During this step, care must be taken by the therapist to ensure that the sessions must be life-like and that the client must be in a comfortable state with his mind diverted from the true purpose of the experiment. Sessions must follow as the third step, and these will last “three to four hours a week for several months” (Murray & McAdams, 2008). The other steps that follow include diagnostic meetings, the final meeting and statistical analyses of the results (Murray & McAdams, 2008). Conclusion The four aforementioned theories on the etiology of aggression have a few particular similarities and differences. One similarity is on the basis of whether the aggression stems from the unconscious or the conscious part of the brain. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, sex drive, and death instinct were more of an unconscious nature and so was Jung’s theory of repressed needs and Murray’s theory of needs. For these three experts of psychology, the root cause of aggression is the inner workings of the unconscious. However, for Alfred Adler, his theory on the striving for perfection implies that the cause of aggressive behavior is actually more conscious and less unconscious. For Adler, the desire for perfection is something that is consciously brought about by the human will. This makes Adler somehow different from the other three, although Adler did not actually totally deny the influence of the unconscious on the development of aggressive behavior. Moreover, it should be noted that there is a similarity in the theories of Freud and Jung because both psychiatrists contend that repression greatly contributes to the formation of aggressive behavior, only that, for Freud, it is repressed sexual desires while, for Jung, it is repressed urges. Since Murray is too elaborate and too complicated, and since Adler does not give much weight to the influence of the subconscious on aggressive behavior, one is left wondering whether it is Freud or Jung who has constructed a more feasible theory. However, Freud focused more on the unconscious sex drive and the death instinct as the underlying causes of aggressive behavior, thus limiting the etiology of the disease to such causes. Jung, on the other hand, offered a more general etiology of aggression by stating they were caused by any emotion that was repressed. This definition is more practical since it is not only the sex drive that may possibly cause aggression in an individual. Jung, therefore, offered the most workable definition of aggression. References “Aggression.” (2000). Retrieved Jun. 22, 2012 from the Encyclopedia of Science and Religion: http://www.enotes.com/aggression-reference/aggression. “Aggression.” Online Medical Dictionary. (2012). Retrieved Jun. 23, 2012 from Dictionary.com: http://dictionary.reference.com/medical/aggression. Boeree, C. G. “Sigmund Freud.” (2009). Personality Theories. Retrieved Jun. 23, 2012 from Shippensburg University: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/freud.html. Boyle, W. “The Awakening of Dark Gods: Modern Horror Writing and Carl Jung’s Notion of Divine Evil.” (2009).Retrieved Jun. 23, 2012 from PleasantStuff.com: http://www.pleasantfluff.com/2009/09/22/the-awakening-of-dark-gods-modern-horror-writing-and-carl-jung%E2%80%99s-notion-of-divine-evil/. Cosner, L. “Psyography: Alfred Adler.” (2002). Personality Theories. Retrieved Jun. 23, 2012 from Frostburg State University: http://faculty.frostburg.edu/mbradley/psyography/alfredadler.html. Murray, H. A. & McAdams, D. P. (2008). Explorations in Personality. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 12, 23-31. “Needs as Personality: Henry Murray.” (2004). Personality Traits. Retrieved Jun. 23, 2012 from Wilderdom: http://wilderdom.com/personality/traits/PersonalityTraitsNeedsHenryMurray.html. “Psychogenic Needs.” (2012). Personality Synopsis. Retrieved Jun. 24, 2012 from AllPsych Online: http://allpsych.com/personalitysynopsis/murray.html. Selesnick, S. T. (1995). “Alfred Adler: The Psychology of the Inferiority Complex.” Psychoanalytic Pioneers. Ed. Franz Alexander & Samuel Eisenstein. New Brunswick. NJ: Transaction Publishers, 84. Yanowitch, R. & Coccaro, E. F. (2011). “The Neurochemistry of Human Aggression.” Advances in Genetics, 75, 152-169. Read More