Overview for Adolescent Bullying - Literature review Example

Overview for adolescent bullying Bullying among school-aged youth is increasingly highlighted as a significant challengeimpacting on the well-being and social functioning of young people. Although, to a certain amount the conflict and harassment is characteristic of youth peer relations, bullying embodies a potentially more severe threat to health youth development. Whereas much of the attention on bullying pursue comprehending the impact of bullying on victims, it is essential to examine the predictors of bullying and the possible outcomes for bullies. The present literature on bullying lacks a consensus on an utilizable definition of bullying within research that varies as per theoretical framework. Despite the variability on definition, bullying is mainly considered a specific form of aggression whereby: (1) it is fashioned to harm (2) it manifests repetitively over time, and (3) displays a disparity of power. Overview for adolescent bullying Introduction Over the last two decades, the emphasis and focus has shifted to comprehending and preventing a certain form of aggression-bullying. Evidently, bullying has become a topic of interest and entails aspects such as threatening, name calling, isolating others, spreading rumours, and text messaging. Bullying has been found to increase during the middle school years with an estimated 10-30% of children being involved. Much has been written regarding bullying and victimization, which hold significant implications in research and school-side programs. The most promising programs detail those that focus on the individual, the immediate family, and the wide community simultaneously. Adolescent can be regarded as the period in which majority of the youth encounter numerous life altering events, some of which bear impacts on their adulthood and beyond. This makes it critical to understand why the young people find themselves in the present position, and aid them comprehend how the choices they arrive at impact significantly on their life. There are diverse theoretical perspectives on bullying and the predictors, namely: ethological perspective; ecological and socio-ecological theories; cognitive and social-cognitive theories; and, genetic and other biologic theories. Bullying can take multiple forms, and bear adverse effects such as inflicting harm on individuals perceived to have low self-esteem or to be perceived as weak individual. Bullying can manifest physically and mentally and both bear a negative effect on the victim and the actor. The most dominant forms of bullying reported by boys entail threats, physical harm, name-calling, and rejection. Direct verbal aggression was the most predominant form of bullying, manifesting with matching frequency in both sexes. Direct physical aggression is more common among boys while indirect forms of physical aggression are dominant among girls. Research inspecting characteristics of youth involved in bullying has constantly unearthed that both bullies and those bullied manifest poor psychosocial functioning compared to non-involved peers. Bullies others are inclined to demonstrate enhanced levels of conduct challenges and dislike of school, whilst the victims of bullying manifest enhanced levels of insecurity, depression, loneliness, unhappiness, and low self-esteem, physical and mental symptoms. Bullying has overtime gained topicality among both adolescent and adult interactions with advancement in technological broadening the stage for bullying. Close to 60% of the adolescents labelled as bullies within the middle school perpetrate one crime by the time they attain the age of 24 (Massachusetts Citizens for Children, 2012). Some of variables that conspire to create environments in which bullying is likely to occur included harsh and punitive discipline methods, lower-quality classroom instruction, disorganized classroom, student social structures, and school settings. One of the well known meta-analysis of school-based anti-bullying programs results in a 17-23% reduction, in bullying. Quantitative studies indicate that school engagement is a protective factor for victims. Bullying Behaviours among U.S. Youth School bullying has been highlighted as a risk factor linked to antisocial and criminal behaviour. The victims are highly likely to bear enhanced levels of stress, depression, anxiety, and illness, and a predisposition to suicide (Tonja, et al. 2001). Research has indicated that males are highly likely to engage in direct bullying; however, both males and females can be perpetrators and targets of bullying. The occurrence of bullying within America is considerably high among 6th and 8th grade compared to 9th and 10th grade students. The perpetration and experiencing of bullying were linked to poor psychosocial adjustment; nevertheless, diverse patterns of association manifested among bullies and their victims. The pervasiveness of bullying within the U.S. youth is considerable and is on a worrying trend (Hawker & Boulton, 2000). Based on the concurrent behavioural and emotional difficulties linked with bulling, as well as the probable long-term negative outcomes for the youth, the issue of bullying should be awarded serious attention for future research and preventive intervention. Extent of the Problem Between 2007 and 2008, 32% of the nation’s ages 12-18 reported being bullied. Bullying victims and perpetrators remain at an enhanced risk for suicide compared to their peers. The three groups (victims, perpetrators, and perpetrator/victims) are highly likely to be depressed compared to children who are engaged in bullying. Depression is a significant risk factor for suicide. Similarly, victims of cyber bullying are also predisposed to depression. One study established that victims of cyber bullying had enhanced levels of depression that victims of face-to-face bullying (Wang & Iannotti, 2010). Key findings of Research Most surveys on bullying report victimization rates of 9-32% and bullying rates of 3-27%. Verbal abuse remains the most dominant reported form of bullying, but cyber bullying is increasingly becoming a significant issue. There are diverse terms of bullying within diverse countries and diverse forms of behaviour involved. Victimization decreases with age, although, there is an initial peak amid the transition from primary to secondary school. Boys are highly likely to be engaged in physical bullying while girls are likely to be engaged in verbal and relational bullying (Liu & Graves, 2011). Family and peer relationships have been highlighted as critical factors for bullies, as well as victims and bully/victims. Prevalence rates of having bullied others or having being a victim for at least one in two months featured 20.8% physically, 53.6% verbally, 51.4% socially, or 13.6% electronically. Boys are highly likely to become physical, cyber, or verbal bullies while girls are highly likely to engage in relational bullying and cyber victims. These personal characteristics encompass internalizing problems; low assertiveness; low self-esteem; and, aggressiveness in early childhood (which can yield rejection by peers and social isolation). Given that a majority of these characteristics also match risk factors for suicidal behaviour, in most cases, the children most at risk for suicide are bullied, which consequently raises their risk of suicide (as well as depression, anxiety, and other challenges associated with suicidal behaviour). This does not mean that personal factors alone render a child to be bullied; indeed, these personal characteristics act in conjunction with risks factors linked to two influential components of a child’s social life: the family, inclusive of child maltreatment, parental depression, and domestic violence (Arseneault et al., 2010); the school environment inclusive absence of sufficient adult supervision, a school climate typified by conflict and absence of consistent and effective discipline, and school size (Arseneault et al., 2010). Effects of Bullying Bullying bear multiple effects on both the victims and actors. In most cases, the affects of bullying on the victim tends to be elevated compared to the effects on the actor, and encompass aspects such as prolonged depression that manifest within the individuals’ adult life. Some adolescents develop a fear of others owing to being a victim of bullying, and there has been substantial evidence of suicide. Statistics indicate that close to 4,400 suicides are registered among adolescents with half of those resulting from bullying (Bullying Statistics, 2009). The reasons why bullying continues to gain prominence and grow as a social issue are numerous with some of the causes entailing unstructured family settings, academic failures, low self-esteem, poor social skills, and school settings (absence of discipline within the school structure). Some of the outlined causes can be perceived as out of control of the bully, and it remains society’s responsibility to aid the young people corrects such behaviours. If the society were to play its rightful role to aid troubled children, then the society will be healthy and safe (Morrison, 2002). Furthermore, such actions will contribute to saving lives and young people from both physical and mental issues that affect young people. The Efficacy of Schools-based Anti-bullying Programs Youth violence, inclusive of bullying and other violent behaviours has overtime received increased political and scientific attention. Despite the decline registered in violent behaviour among adolescents, the victimization of children by other children within school settings remains a prominent issue of concern. In response to this, some prevention and intervention programs have been instituted to minimize the incidence of bullying and violence within schools (Berger, 2007). School based interventions to bullying entail curriculum; multidisciplinary or “whole-school” interventions, social skills groups; mentoring; and social worker support. It is critical to outline how this issue has been addressed within the past and present, as well as the manner in which it should be undertaken in the future so as to curtail the number of bullies. Early intervention has been highlighted the most suitable means to prevent bulling (Tonja, et al. 2001). One of the approaches to ending bullying entails utilization of restorative justice principles directed at bringing about behavioural change by the subject, besides enabling schools and communities to remain safe. Restorative justice entails a form of conflict resolution and pursues to make it apparent to the offender that such behaviours cannot be condoned while simultaneously supporting and respecting the individual (Morrison, 2002). Schools, as institutions can play a critical role in fostering care and respect and availing opportunities to engage in processes that allow the differences to be settled constructively. The evidence on the effectiveness of school-based bullying prevention programs is mixed. Most of the barriers are social-cultural while the barriers to the anti-bullying policies entail difficulty in identifying bullying victims and lack of time to address such behaviours. Studies indicate that the whole school approach to bullying has yielded significant reductions in bullying within a number of cases, but the results are too inconsistent to validate incorporation of such procedures to the exclusion of others (Boyle, 2005). A meta-analysis of bullying prevention programs indicates that, although, school bullying interventions may yield modest positive outcomes that they are highly likely to impact on knowledge, attitudes, and self-conceptions, instead of actual bullying behaviours. A research review indicated that interventions employing classroom curricula or social skills training failed to decrease bullying. The reviews availed some support for the utilization of multi-disciplinary approaches; however, there were “significant barriers” to their success, inclusive of the difficulty of implementing the programs and the characteristics of school environments that may impact on program outcomes. Overall, anti-bullying programs generate minimal discernible effect on youth participants. One of the Meta analysis concluded that school-based, anti-bullying prevention programs yielded a reduction in bullying and victimization by an average of about 20-23% (Farrington & Ttofi, 2009a). Other authors of review of the research on bullying prevention have pointed out that the efficacy of multi-disciplinary approaches that may be sometimes exaggerated owing to evaluations of these programs that frequently rely on self-reports by students (Research Foundation, 2007). The implementation of these programs within the U.S. has been accused on: failing to intervene within the social environment that facilitates bullying; fails to incorporate factors such as sexual orientation, disability, and race; and, are devised to reach all students when only a section (a small percentage) of the students engages in bullying). Comprehensive school-based prevention programs should be launched to prevent suicidal behaviour. The school-based program does not narrowly focus on school curricula and life/social skills training, but also encompass: activities directed at highlighting young people at risk of bullying and suicide (Christine, et al. 2009). In conducting the review about the state of science for adolescent bullying, I have understood the harmful effects of bullying and appreciated the need for schools to provide education and services directed at prevention and cessation of bullying. School bullying has overtime been recognized as damaging psychological, academic, social, and physical development of children. This necessitates implementation of the anti-bully program that tackles school bullying is critical for establishing desirable educational environments and constructive pathways to self-reliance for children. Conclusion While the bulk of attention has highlighted the impact on bullies’ victims, there is considerable evidence that indicate that bullies themselves are vulnerable to a host of negative outcomes influencing on their well-being and social functioning. Nevertheless, the causes and consequences of bullying inclusive of the risk factors to highlight children at risk of bullying can be considered as much less straightforward. Bullying is an age-old problem that demands new solutions. Future research should consider an examination of the connection between classroom management practices and student bullying. A better comprehension of the course and trajectories of bullying behaviours and identification of predictors of bullying across developmental stages from childhood through adolescence is critical for early identification and prevention efforts. Nevertheless, this cannot be attained devoid of first understanding the present state of science and the way in which diverse theoretical perspectives conceptualize bullying. References Arseneault, L., Bowes, L., & Shakoor, S. (2010). Bullying victimization in youths and mental health problems: ‘Much ado about nothing’? Psychological Medicine, 40(5), 717–729. Berger, S. k. (2007). Update on bullying at school: Science forgotten? Development Review, 27 (1): 90-126. Boyle, D.J. (2005). Youth Bullying: Incidence, Impact, and Interventions. Journal of the New Jersey Psychological Association, 55(3), 22-24. Bullying Statistics. (2009). Bullying and Suicide. Retrieved November 10, 2012, from Bullying Statistics: http://www.bullyingstatistics.org/content/bullying-and-suicide.html Christine, M. et al. (2009). Bullying and Victimization among Boys and Girls in Middle School: The Influence of Perceived Family and School Contexts. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 29 (1): 571-609. Farrington, D., & Ttofi, M. (2009a). Reducing school bullying: Evidence-based implications for policy. Crime and Justice, 38(281), 281–345. Hawker, D. S., & Boulton, M. J. (2000). Twenty Years Research on Peer Victimization and Psychosocial Maladjustment: A Meta-analytic Review of Cross-sectional Studies. The Journal of Child Phsychology and Phychiatry , 441-455. Liu, J. & Graves, N. (2011). Childhood bullying: A review of constructs, contexts, and nursing implications. Public Health Nursing, 28 (6): 556-568. Massachusetts Citizens for Children. (2012). Learn the facts - what effects does bullying have on children. Retrieved November 10, 2012, from Massachusetts Citizens for Children. Retrieved from http://www.masskids.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=158&Itemid=160 Morrison, B. (2002). Bullying and Victimisation in Schools: A Restorative Justice Approach. Canberra ACT: Australian Institute of Criminology. Research Foundation, Inc. (2007). The Effectiveness of School-Based Anti-Bullying Programs. Criminal Justice Review , 401-414. Tonja, R. et al. (2001). Bullying Behaviors Among US Youth. The Journal of the American Medical Association , 2094-2100. Wang, J., Nansel, T., & Iannotti, R. (2010). Cyber and traditional bullying: Differential association with depression. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48(4), 415–417. Read More