Earlier Physiological and Experimental Psychology - Essay Example

? Philosophical Assumptions about the Causes of Human Behavior Philosophical Assumptions about the Causes of Human Behavior Introduction Psychology is a profession that asks and answers some of the fundamental questions such as why do human beings behave and think the way they do. The most appropriate way to characterize the various approaches that have been taken by psychologists to answer the question of psychology is to recognize them into different perspectives. The common perspectives embody fundamental assumptions pertaining to research questions and the methods used to answer the psychological questions (Mohr, 1996). The theories that can assist in understanding and answering these questions include philosophical to antecedent psychology; earlier physiological and experimental psychology; applied psychology and behaviorism; psychoanalytic movement and contemporary movement. Most of these perspectives commonly define psychology as the study of human behavior and mental process. However, this definition seems narrow and does not cover a lot of issues regarding the causes of human behavior. The essay will discuss the philosophical assumptions underlying the causes of human behavior with regard to the theories using a thinker behind these theories. Philosophical antecedents to psychology This approach is based on two ways of studying the human mind: rational and empirical (Sternberg, Mio, and Mio, 2009). In this case, a rationalist is one who believes that logical analysis is the route to knowledge. On the other hand, an empiricist is one who believes that knowledge is acquired empirically or through evidence. This means that individuals obtain evidence via observation and experience. Aristotle, for instance, was an empiricist. Aristotle believed that human nature could be understood well by observations and reasons. Thus, knowledge should be left open for examination subject to reasoning (Sternberg, Mio, and Mio, 2009). Other brains behind the theory are Descartes and Locke. Rationalists like Descartes believed that reflective and introspective methods are superior to empirical methods. An empiricist like Lock argues that people are born without knowledge, and therefore must seek it through empirical observations (Sternberg, Mio, and Mio, 2009). The idea behind this notion is that, human experience and life “write’ knowledge on people. What he believed in was that, people have no innate ideas irrespective of what happens and therefore learning is the only way human mind can be understood. The rationalists and empiricists ideas are what Jean Piaget used in his Cognitive psychology Philosophical Antecedent of Cognitive Psychology Cognitive psychology is based on the notion that if an individual wants to establish what makes people tick, then the best way to ensure this is to see the kind of processes that goes in these people’s minds. This means that this principle study the cognition which in this case is the mental act through which knowledge is acquired by an individual (McLeod, 2007). McLeod notes that cognitive perspective focuses on human mental functions such as perception, memory and attention among others. It looks at people as being the same as computers with regard to the manner in which they process information. For instance, the theory alludes that both humans and computers are capable of disseminating information, store data, have both output, and input processes. Thus, it is a scientific approach to human behavior and uses laboratory experiments as a means of studying human behavior. The theory thus suggests that human behavior is under some circumstances thoughtful and can be influenced by thought process. This suggests that much of behaviors of human being are mediated by thinking process such as attention, memory, attitudes, beliefs and language. Proponents of this theory believe that human brings recognizable conscious processes that processes of consciousness mediate most of human behavior. The psychologist who has contributed immensely in this theory is Jean Piaget. The best known is the research he carried on children’s cognitive developments. This theory describes stages that children go through in their intelligent development and formal thought process. In his study, he provided support of the perception that children do think differently than adults. Applied and behaviorism Assumptions Behaviorism argues that human behaviors are learnt, and that all behaviors may be unlearnt and new behaviors acquired in their place (Staats, 1996). In this case, behaviorists are mainly concerned with the aspects of human behaviors that are observable and measurable. In this case, they argue that if human behaviors become intolerable, they cannot be learned (Watson, 1994). Behaviorism also views human development as a process that is continuous in which children have less influence. They believe that the only things that are genuine are the things that people are able to observe and figure out (Staats, 1996). Behaviorism also is not concerned with the human mind or brain in understanding the causes of human behavior. Behaviorists tend to assume that human behavior represents some learned habits and attempt to find out how they are learned. McLeod (2007) argues that behaviorism views people as controlled by the external environment under which they live, and that people are the result of what they have learned from the eternal environment. In this case, they are bothered of how environmental factors affect human observable behaviors. They propose two basic processes under which individuals learn from their external environment. This includes classical and operant conditioning. McLeod notes that classical conditioning entails learning by association while operant conditioning entails learning from consequences of human behavior. Mc Leod (2007) asserts that behaviorism mainly pegs on scientific methodology such as the use of controlled experiments, and that observable behaviors should be studied since they are measurable. They object to the argument that people have free will but instead believe that the environment determines all human behavior (Staats, 1996). Behaviorism is thus the scientific study of behaviors that are observable working on the root that human behavior can be reduced to learned S_R units or Stimulus-Response (McLeod, 2007). One such theorist is Skinner (1904-1990). Many psychologists and theorists view Skinner as one of the greatest behaviorists of all time. Unlike was the case with previous behaviorists like Watson and Pavlov, who were concerned with stimulus-response connections, Skinner looked at how people learn in an opposite perspective. In his study, he investigated how the learning process is affected by stimuli obtainable after performing an act. In his study, skinner observed that stimuli caused an organism to respond to the action by repeating an act more frequently (McLeod, 2007). This is what he called “reinforcement.” Applied psychology in this case refers to the use of findings and methods of scientific psychology to solve any pressing practical problem of human behavior and experience. Applied psychology has been used for vocational testing, evaluation of individual attitudes, teaching methods, psychological welfare, and performance under stress, counseling and rehabilitation. For instance, Skinner’s “reinforces” fundamental has been used by many teachers as a means of motivating and controlling behaviors of students. In classroom perspective, the practices under the theory are called “behavior modification”. This is used by teachers in molding the student’s behaviors and improving learning (Watson, 1994). Early Physiological and Experimental Psychology Physiological psychology focuses on the interdependence between the biological make up and the behavior of an individual (Sharma and Sharma, 2006). The biological assumptions are scientific in nature and assume that human behavior and thinking have biological roots. Biology, in this sense, the biochemistry of human behavior linked to neurotransmitters, genetics, hormones, irritability and psychophysics of perception and sensation (Sharma and Sharma, 2006). For instance, people know of the nervous system structure and the effects the chemicals can have on human behaviors. In this case, McLeod (2007) notes that, the main point of concern in biological perspective looks at the impact of genes in human behavior. The biological approach argues that most human behaviors are inherited and has adaptive functions (Evolutionary). For instance, during the first week of birth, the testosterone levels in fathers decline by more than 30%. This McLeod say has an evolutionary function. Men deprived of testosterone are thus less likely to start searching for new mates to have sex with. Moreover, the theory suggests that they are less aggressive which is vital when a child is around. According to McLeod (2007), biological psychologists explain human behavior from the neurological perspective, that is, the structure and physiology of the human brain and its influence on human behavior. In most cases, biological psychologists explain it in terms of abnormal behavior (Sharma and Sharma, 2006). For instance, they believe that Schizophremia is not affected much by dopamine. Psychoanalysis Perspective Sigmund Freud is the brain behind this theory of human behavior. McLeod (2007) suggests that many expressions in people’s daily lives come from Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis, that is, denial, conscious, expression and anal personality. Freud suggests that events during a child’s life can have a significant impact on his behavior when they become an adult. He also believes that individuals have very little free will to make choices in life. Instead, an individual’s behavior is determined by unconscious mind and experiences during childhood (McLeod, 2007). McLeod (2007) argues that Freud’s psychoanalysis theory is both a theory as well as a therapy. He reveals that this theory of psychoanalysis is what inspired psychologists such s Erickson and Jung to develop their own psychodynamic theories. His theory has in fact, contributed greatly to psychology as a profession (McLeod, 2007). Freud as the founder of psychoanalysis compares the human mind to an iceberg. The part with limited visibility includes observable behavior while the unconscious, hidden mind influences human behavior the most (Plante, 2010). To come up with such a conclusion, Freud used three different methods to assess the unconscious mind. That is, the free association, lips of the tongue and dream analysis. From his study, he believed that the unconscious mind has three components: the ‘superego’ and the ‘id’ the ‘ego.’ In this case, the ‘id’ has two main instincts; ‘Eros’ which is the instinct of life that entails self-preservation and sex which is triggered by ‘libido’ energy force (Plante, 2010). On the other end, ‘Thanatos’ is the instinct of death, whose force, since they are not so powerful as compared to ‘Eros’ are removed from individuals. Freud argues that the ‘superego’ and the ‘id’ are ever is conflict with each other while the ‘ego’ is what tries to solve the problem. In case a solution is not found to the problem, then people resort to using defense mechanisms as a way of reducing anxiety. McLeod notes that psychoanalysis assists patients in resolving their inner conflicts. An example that Freud alludes of the theory is that of psychosexual development. The theory reveals how early experiences affects a person when he becomes an adult. The theory also suggests that stimulation of different areas of the human body is vital as a child grows up through the various developmental stages (McLeod, 2007). Freud argues that too much or too little stimulation may impact negatively on a person later in life. Nevertheless, he argues that the most important stage in life is the phallic stage in which the focus of libido is put on human genitals. At this stage in life, Freud argues that boys experience “Oedipus complex’ while small girls experience “Electra complex’ (Papalia, Olds, and Feldman, 2001). He reveals that these complexes make children identify with their same sex parents, which help them learn of sex-appropriate behavior and their moral code of conduct. The humanist perspective is based on the study of a person as a whole. Humanistic psychologist tends to look at individuals through the person behaving and not the observer’s eyes. They believe that a person’s behavior is linked to his self-image and inner feelings. It is based on the view that every individual is unique and the person has the free will to change himself at any time in his life. Humanistic perspective alludes that every individual is responsible for his own well-being and happiness. The theory argues that every individual have an innate aptitude for self-actualization, which is the people’s desire to achieve the highest potential as an individual (McLeod, 2007). One of the brains behind this theory is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. In his theory, Maslow was able to show that an individual must be able to satisfy his lower level (basic) needs before proceeding to meet those on higher level. Maslow argued that, once these needs have been met, one might be able to reach the highest level possible, which he called self-actualization. In his theory of self-actualization of (1943 and 1954), Maslow argued that human motivation is based on individuals trying to fulfill and change through personal growth. This helps in understanding the causes of human behavior (Jarvis, 2000) Compare the viewpoint of each thinker, describe the impact of those ideas on the history and current trends in psychology Psychoanalysis as fronted by Sigmund Freud seem to have more explanatory power through which people can get a better understanding of human behavior. Freud’s views are, however, being criticized for only explaining human behavior after an event has occurred, without being able to predict what might happen in future, and for being unfalsifiable. Critics of Freud argue that he approached psychology with a more religious footing. His ideas have, however, contributed immensely to the human personality theory. It is also used as a means of solving structural conflicts by bringing them into consciousness. It is the Freud theory that is generally being applied in insight therapy, and treatment approach (McLeod, 2007). Behaviorism fronted by Skinner has parsimonious theories of learning process, by applying simple principles such as behavior shaping, reinforcing and generalization to explain quite a number of behaviors ranging from moral development to language acquisition. Skinner believed in scientific principles of orderliness and determinism and could fairly predict in advance when, as organism was likely to respond as opposed to Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis. Skinner’s theory of applied psychology and behaviorism is applied in controlling human and animal behavior in the present day. For instance, in Skinner’s novel, Walden Two (1948), he described how a society is being controlled in accordance with the principles of behaviorists. The principles are also being applied by teachers in schools to control behaviors and attitudes of students (McLeod, 2007). Antecedent of cognitive psychology seems to adopt a scientific approach regarding observable mental processes, through experimentation upon human behavior to prove or disapprove assertions (Schultz and Schultz, 2011). For instance, Jean Piaget in his study observed that human behavior is under some circumstances thoughtful and can be influenced by thought processes. This suggests that much of human behaviors are mediated by processes of thinking such as attention, memory, attitudes, beliefs and language. They believe that human beings recognizable conscious processes mediate most of human behavior. Piaget’s theory of cognitive psychology has contributed immensely in the development and understanding history of Psychology. His theory, for instance, is still being studied in the world of sociology, psychology, genetics and education. In this case, his work has made people understand the cognitive growth of children. This is so because, while some theorists and researchers had often viewed children as smaller versions of adults, Piaget has helped in showing that children are peculiar and are an important period during human development (Cherry, 2012). Aristotle’s empirical view of human behavior has contributed immensely in the world of science education. For instance, his ideas are seen to make physics interesting and understandable than before. Also in ancient times, most events in nature were being explained as acts of gods. It is here that the contributions of Aristotle come in. In his study, he came up with a suggestion that the principles of nature exist within nature and could be exposed through careful observation and thorough reasoning. Personalistic and Naturalistic Approach to Understanding the History of Psychology Watson (1960) argues that the history of psychology can be understood in view of personalistic and naturalistic approaches. For instance, according to the personalistic (Great Man History) theory, important past events result from actions of heroic personalities. Without the contributions of such people, history would be widely different. Watson notes that this approach is associated with the 19th century historians such as Thomas Carlyle. According to the personalistic approach, Charles Darwin, Newton and Freud have helped shape the history of science. Thus without their contributions, history could have not been the way it is now. Based on this argument, biography is the preferred method of writing history. This creates what is known as eponyms according to Boring 1963a (Watson, 1960). This means that periods of history are identified in accordance with personalities whose actions are perceived to be valuable in shaping events. Watson argues that this is the reason why today people read of Darwinian biology, Newtonian physics and Freudian psychology. Naturalistic approach on the other hand is based on the forces of history acting on people (Watson, 1960). In this regard, it suggests that scientific history’s progress and change are the result of Zeitgeist, which makes culture receptive to certain ideas and ignoring others (Schultz and Schultz, 2011). For instance, naturalistic approach suggests that, in case Charles Darwin had died young, then someone else would have developed another theory of human evolution in the mid-19th century since intellectual climate was receptive to concede such a way of explaining the origin of human species (Schultz and Schultz, 2011). The same way, the theory suggests that if Freud had died young, then this would not mean that the psychoanalysis theory would not have been developed. Instead, someone else could have come up with the theory of psychoanalysis. This helps individuals in understanding the history of psychology. Conclusion The perspective described above represents those divergent philosophical assumptions as to why humans behave and think the way they do. From the discussion, it is apparent that some of these approaches are entirely based on qualitative research methods while others depend on qualitative methods. In fact, most of the assumptions made by the thinkers rely upon data derived from both qualitative and quantitative research. In this case, it is also evident that each thinker behind the theories tends to answer the questions of the causes of human behavior in their own perspective. It can also be deduced that, the peculiar research methods and practices that came out of the different views form a landscape of complexity of behaviors and thinking. These diligent views held by different thinkers give psychology as a discipline a more and adequate way of understanding the causes of human behaviors and their mental processes. The paper has also revealed some of the contributions that the thinkers have made to the discipline of psychology, education, sociology, science among others. It is also worth noting that personalistic and naturalistic theories have also helped people understand the history of psychology. References Cherry, K. (2012). Jean Piaget Biography (1896-1980). Retrieved on 19 April 2012 from http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/piaget.htm Jarvis, M. (2000). Theoretical approaches in psychology. New York, NY: Routlegde. McLeod, S. (2008). contributions of cognitive psychology to history and current trend of psychology: Simply Psychology. Retrieved on 19 April 2012 Mohr, L. (1996). The causes of human behavior: implications for theory and method in the social sciences. Michigan: University of Michigan. Plante, T.G. (2010). Contemporary Clinical Psychology. New Jersey, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Papalia, D.E., Olds, S.W., & Feldman, R.D. (2001). Human Development. London: McGraw Hill. Schultz, D.P. & Schultz, S.E. (2011). A History of Modern Psychology. London: Cengage Learning. Sternberg, R., Mio, J., & Mio, J. (2009). Cognitive psychology. California, CA: Cengage learning. Sharma, R.N. & Sharma, R. (2006). Experimental Psychology. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & distributors. Staats, A.W. (1996). Behavior and Personality: Psychological Behaviorism. New York, NY: Springer publishing company. Watson, R.I. (1960). Introduction to Psychology’s History: to neglect history does not mean to escape from its influence. Retrieved on 19 April 2012 fromhttp://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/58/04711280/0471128058.pdf Watson, J.B. (1994). Psychology from standpoint of behaviorist. London: Routledge. Read More