Dyslexia and Modern Music Teaching Techniques - Essay Example

?Literature Review What is Dyslexia? Dyslexia is a disorder of the brain which was first recognized in 1896 by Pringle Morgan. According to Gosling (2007), the dyslexic brain is different from the normal brain in a variety of ways. For instance, Gosling states that, with the dyslexic brain, the planal or temporal brain is symmetrical in its hemispheres. This, according to Gosling, is rarely seen in normal brains. This symmetricality in the the brain hemispheres produces not only dyslexia, according to Gosling, but also left-handedness, better than average visual abilities, enhanced creativity, and allergies. Gosling states that the changes in the brain occur in utero, and are irreversible. Gosling also states dyslexia occurs in more than 5% of the population, the incident occurs equally in males and females, and that the disorder appears to be inherited (Gosling, 2007). Juggins (2007) suggests that dyslexia is a difference in how the brain is wired. Therefore, Juggins (2007) explains that dyslexics learn and think differently than those without dyslexia. They tend to be more global thinkers, and are able to see the bigger picture, as opposed to getting hung up on the minutiae. Because of this, Juggins (2007) believes that dyslexics are problem solvers, and have natural creativity, citing Picasso, Darwin, Einstein, Da Vinci, Yeats and John Lennon as examples of dyslexics who changed the world (Juggins, 2007). MacMillan (2007) states that dyslexics often have problems learning to play a musical instrument, because they often have issues with auditory, motor and spatial skills. Also, dyslexics tend to deficiencies in visual perception, timing, short-term memory, phonological processing, concentration, coordination, organisation, sequencing and working at speed, according to MacMillan (2007). Perhaps because of these deficiencies, dyslexic individuals may also suffer from low self-esteem, frustration, erratic behavior, anxiety, exhaustion and fear of failure. Among the specific problems that dyslexics may encounter in learning music are that they have problems reading musical notation, along with having problems with sight-reading, melody and rhythm and maintaining a steady beat (MacMillan, 2007). Overy et al. (2003) state that, while it is well known that dyslexic children have difficulties with phonological skills, they state that the reason why this is true is a subject of debate. They state that some experts believe that dyslexia is speech-specific. Other experts believe that the phonological difficulties seen in dyslexics have an underlying cause, such as auditory problems caused by a deficit in rapid temporal processing, or problems with transient auditory processing. Some experts believe that dyslexia is caused by cerebellar processing deficits. Overy et al. (2003) surmise that what the experts have in common is that all believe that dyslexics have a problem with rapid timing skills. Overy et al. (2003) also state that dyslexics may have visual and auditory perception problems, motor coordination problems and fluency and automatisation problems. Any one of these problems, according to Overy et al. (2003) would lead to deficits in language and literacy development (Overy et al., 2003). Dyslexia, as a learning disability, is a disorder which makes the sufferers of the disease feel inferior and deficient, according to Pollak (2007). Pollak (2007) explains that students who have dyslexia feel that they are lacking in academic ability, feel that they will be “turned down at every stage when applying for pre-Access courses, Access itself and then University” (Pollak, 2007, p. 32). Pollak also states that dyslexics commonly believe that they are lacking in intellectual ability, and that formal assessments will show this (Pollak, 2007). Being diagnosed with dyslexia is therefore a liberating experience for many individuals who previously thought themselves stupid. As one individual stated “Being told I was dyslexic was one of the most shameful but also joyous experiences in my life...it lifted the phantom 'D' cap off my head” (Graves, 2007). Gosling (2007), who is a Professor, also proves that the lack of intellectual ability is not true. Gosling (2007), who is a dyslexic, states that, although he was disillusioned with formal education for most of his life, he was fortunate to learn maths from an individual, Titus Thorpe, who, as a dyslexic, understood that other dyslexics might learn by visualizing concepts graphically, and by using fundamental concepts instead of formulae. Gosling has since written 15 books, with another half dozen in draft form (Gosling, 2007). Dyslexics and Music As stated above, dyslexia may produce a great deal of creativity in the brain of the person with dyslexia, as well as a tendency to think globally and see the big picture as opposed to the minutiae. This would mean that dyslexics might be musically talented but have trouble with actually reading notation. Perhaps they might be able to have perfect pitch while singing, or even be able to play music just by hearing it, but would not be able to translate sheet music. Sailer (2011) suggests that this might be the case. She states that dyslexics might have musical gifts, yet would not be able to read notations because of their deficits in visual-spatial decoding and their deficits in translating this decoding into motor activities. Other issues that dyslexics might have with regards to reading sheet music is they are deficient in the visual-spatial areas of the brain, and have difficulties reading right to left (Sailer, 2011). Omar et al. (2010) suggest that cognitive deficits will affect how well an individual may read musical notations, stating that symbolic musical notations has rules which help translate the symbols into musical outputs, and that any kind of deficit which would hinder the person in reading these notations would translate into the inability to produce musical output and will also affect music comprehension (Omar et al., 2010). Miles (2007) states that the problem with reading musical notation is because the information on the page is so compressed, and, while dyslexics might be superior in other musical skills, such as rhythm, playing by ear and composition, dyslexics will have difficulty with sight reading, just as they have difficulties with reading the printed word (Miles, 2007). Forgeard et al. 2008) states that written language and music notation involve the same skill set – reading left to right, recognizing patterns and mapping sounds to symbols (Forgeard et al. 2007). Therefore, if a dyslexic has issues with reading the written language, they are bound to have issues reading musical notation. While there are similarities between text reading, there are also differences, contend Hebert & Cuddy (2006). Among these differences is the fact that text reading proceeds sequentially (horizontally), and music reading proceeds both sequentially and simultaneously (horizontally and vertically). Also, music reading involves decoding both single elements (notes) and elements in combination (chords). Music reading also involves the ability to discern vertical distance and changes and changes in element direction, which would indicate pitch changes, and there is not the equivalent skill set which is necessary to read text. Pace is another critical difference between music and text reading. Music reading includes information with regards to duration, and this is necessary to decode, in order to play the music as the composer intended, and text does not include this information or pace constraints. Therefore, Hebert & Cuddy (2006) conclude that there are major differences between music and text reading, and that space and time play a major role in these differences. Hebert et al. (2008) state that individuals who have difficulty reading music are at a disadvantage, overall, when it comes to the acquisition of musical ability. This is because the musician must be able to read music easily and quickly. Moreover, individuals who have difficulty reading music often do not get the extra help that they need to be able to accomplish this task. This is in contrast to individuals who have difficulty reading texts. As Hebert et al. (2008) note, if a child is having difficulty reading text, they are given formal assessments and extra help. However, if an individual is having difficulties reading music, they are not usually given extra help and formal assessments, and usually end up failing and dropping out of the music program. As with Forgeard et al. (2008), Hebert et al., (2008) note that difficulties in reading text and reading music are often seen, hand in hand, reasoning that both music reading and text reading rely on the same part of the brain, the posterior part of the left hemisphere (Hebert et al., 2008). MacMillan (2004) states that musical notation and text reading have similarities because musical notation and the alphabet are both based upon arbitrary associations and conventions, and reading music and reading text both rely upon processing symbolic information, with which dyslexics have problems (MacMillan, 2004). MacMillan (2004) states that there a variety of reasons why a dyslexic might have problems reading music. One of these is the way that dyslexics perceive musical notation. Dyslexics might have inefficient strategies for processing information. MacMillan (2004) also suggests that dyslexics are easily overwhelmed by large tasks and should be given small, manageable tasks. Dyslexics have to work slowly and carefully, one step at a time, suggests MacMillan (2004). She describes one musician with dyslexia, who is a professional pianist. The pianist uses different strategies to deal with her disabilities, which capitalize upon the dyslexic's strength in seeing things globally, and getting the big picture first. The professional pianist in MacMillan's (2004) study stated that, instead of approaching a new piece by reading the notes and seeing how they fit together, the pianist begins by looking at the structure of the piece first, before anything else. The piece is first examined as a whole, and this is reinforced by listening to the piece. This professional musician was not alone in MacMillan's (2004) study, as she notes that there were five dyslexic subjects who were studied by researcher Leonore Ganschow, and that all five of these subjects approach learning a new piece of music by first listening to the piece being played. The five subjects in this study further indicated that they had problems with musical notation, for which they compensated by approaching the piece holistically and multi-sensorily. The way that the five described learning music is that they felt the music, they visualized the music and they learned by first getting a global impression of the new music (MacMillan, 2004). MacMillan (2004) further states that dyslexic children have problems with learning music because their sense of rhythm and timing are deficient. She states that children with dyslexia, or who are at risk for developing dyslexia, often show deficiencies in tempo perception, rapid rhythm temporal processing, metre production and rhythm production. MacMillan (2004) states that developing theses skills through music training has shown a benefit to dyslexic children, not only in helping them develop musical skills, but also this musical training helps to develop phonological and spelling skills. Singing may also help the dyslexic child learn the alphabet and arithmetic tables, and can aid memorisation (MacMillan, 2004). Strategies for Learning Music As noted above, the students who were successful in learning music, despite their dyslexia, reported that they would use a global approach, and they also noted that they would use a multi-sensory approach to learning the new musical piece. MacMillan (2004) describes the multi-sensory approach, stating that this approach is successful with learners with dyslexia. In this approach, the learner uses most of his or her senses when learning the music – sight, touch, hearing, seeing. They are taught to visualize the music, and to coordinate their eye and hand movement, and the hand and mouth movements. They might use strategies such as listening to the music, while silently practicing their fingering for the music, or might “sing” the piece in their head before attempting to sing the piece out loud. They are also encouraged to discern the intent behind the musical piece, and to memorise the piece by listening to it, repeated it and remembering how the piece feels by how the hands move (MacMillan, 2004). MacMillan (2004) states that such a holistic approach is successful in people with dyslexia, because they are right hemisphere dominant, and might be able to think three dimensionally and be able to approach problems from different angles. MacMillan (2004) suggests that the strength of the person with dyslexia lies in their abilities to think in such a creative way, and in their ability to see things from a holistic perspective. The multi-sensory approach to learning music thus plays to the talents of the dyslexic, in that it engages most of the individuals' senses at once, and allows the individual to approach the music from the top-down, as opposed to the bottom up. MacMillan (2004) specifically advocates that individuals with dyslexia be taught using the Suzuki method. According to Lanie-Keosaian, the Suzuki method involves getting a child involved in physically making the music, without worrying first about the printed page, and that the method has as its basis the Piagetian early stages of childhood. As Lanie-Keosaian notes, children can sing and speak before they can read, and they can learn to count before they can add or subtract. They learn to play drums before they learn to use a pencil or crayon, and they can imitate a melody or song before they can read this same song or melody. These are all fundamentals of childhood – singing, playing, counting, walking and running, and these skills come before learning grammar, arithmetic, dance, music and the symbolic representations of these (Lanie-Keosaian). The Suzuki Method was formulated in the 1930s by Suzuki Sin-ichi (1898-1998). Suzuki modeled his teaching methods on how children learn their first language, which means that they start early, they listen before they speak, they learn by imitation and they learn to speak before learning to read and write. Children who learn through the Suzuki method, explains Mehl (2009), begin by imitating the teacher, learning by ear and not reading music, then learning to read music after mastering the basics of the instrument (Mehl, 2009). Lewis (2007) states that the Suzuki method discourages learning the more complex tasks associated with learning music, such as learning to read music, before the student has had the chance to obtain the kinesthetic and aural experience necessary to move on to the next step (Lewis, 2007). According to MacMillan (2011), the Suzuki method is based upon ten principles. The first is parental involvement. The parents are to attend the music lessons and supervise the children's practice sessions. Teachers and parents need to be involved with one another in the process, as the teacher learns from the parent the child's weaknesses and strengths, and the parent learns from the teacher the specific strategies which will be used to address the problems. Listening is another principle in the Suzuki method. This means that the children learn music in the same way that they learn language, and that is by being exposed to music in the home. The children also repeatedly listen to music that they know, and can already play, and this, claims MacMillan (2011) is especially helpful for children who are unable to read music because of their dyslexia. Observation is the third principle, and this means that children observe other children practicing their music, and this motivates them and gives them a chance to be social. Demonstration is the fourth principle. This is where the teacher demonstrates the sounds and techniques which are required to learn the music piece. Step by step mastery is the fifth principle. This means that the large tasks are broken down into smaller tasks, and the Suzuki teacher picks individual points of improvement for the student. This individual point is thoroughly worked through with the student, by demonstrating and explaining how to practice it, and, once this small achievement is mastered, the next small point is introduced and worked through in the same way. Eventually, the small achievements combine into a larger achievement, as the student masters each individual component. Memory is the sixth principle. This means that the children play pieces by memory, and MacMillan (2011) states that this is especially important for dyslexic children who have difficulty reading music. Common core repertoire is the seventh principle, and this means that each instrument has a common core repertoire, which each child learns to play. Each piece builds upon itself, adding one or two techniques to the child's existing skill set. Review is the eighth principle, which means that the child repeatedly returns to the pieces that he or she has learned, which gives the child confidence. Group work is the ninth principle, which means that the Suzuki concepts are taught in games and groups, and these activities are multi-sensory, which means that they incorporate different sensory activities – clapping, singing, rearranging flash cards, moving to music and beating a drum might be the kinds of activities which occur in these groups. The tenth principle is that children start the Suzuki method early, around the age of three or four (MacMillan, 2011). MacMillan (2011) states that the Suzuki method is helpful for dyslexics who have problems with reading musical notations for a variety of reasons. The first is that the method does not emphasize the reading of music at the beginning of the program. Rather, children are encouraged to approach music in a more innate way, much the way that they approach learning language. There are no failures in this approach, because the musical training is happening naturally. Moreover, the Suzuki method emphasizes learning concepts thoroughly before moving on to the next concept. Musical notation is one of the concepts which is thoroughly taught, and the way that the musical notation is taught is through groups, games and flash cards. However, the children are not taught the musical notation until they have already built confidence in their ability to make a beautiful sound on their instrument. This secures the child's motor skills and enables him to move on to the next step of learning musical notation. MacMillan (2011) found that the Suzuki students have less problems with learning musical notation than do other dyslexic students, because they develop their motor skills through learning the instrument, and this, in turn, helps them build their ear-eye-hand coordination, which, in turn, helps the student learn the musical notations (MacMillan, 2011). Moreover, MacMillan (2011) notes that many teachers are unsympathetic to dyslexic students, scolding them for their inability to read music, instead of finding a way to teach them without destroying their self-esteem. However, Suzuki teachers emphasize structure, repetition and praise. They teach in a positive way, using praise before gentle criticism. The emphasis on parental support also is helpful in this regard, as the parental involvement further aids the child's self-esteem. The dyslexic children may start the Suzuki program very young, which means that the child will be ahead of his or her peers musically, which also helps to build self-esteem (MacMillan, 2011). Thus, everything about the Suzuki method – its emphasis on patience, repetition, praise and support – is designed to enhance the child's self-esteem, not tear it down, as overly critical music teachers might do. While MacMillan views the Suzuki method as the best way of teaching dyslexic children music, because of its emphasis on early success, and learn the core basics regarding the musical instrument, before musical notation is introduced, Lanier-Keosaian criticizes the Suzuki approach. According to Lanier-Keosaian, the Suzuki method is producing musical illiterates, in that is de-emphasizes musical notation reading, in favor of imitation and learning by listening. This means, according to Lanier-Keosaian, that the students cannot become independent, but, rather, are dependent upon only learninga music aurally. Furthermore, students may become proficient in playing and understanding their instruments, but, if they are unable to read and write the musical language, they are still considered to be illiterate in that music, much as an individual who can speak a language, yet is unable to read or write in that language. Lanier-Keosaian also argues that learning to read and write musical symbols is important because it is more of a cognitive activity than is the act of listening to music, as listening to music occupies less of a cognitive plane than does reading and writing this music. Furthermore, the child can more quickly problem solve when he or she learns to read and write music, than if the child is simply learning music aurally, which gives the child confidence. Although Lanier-Keosaian acknowledges that the Suzuki method does encourage the child to learn to read and write music, she states that this only occurs after the child has learned music aurally for a number of years, and, by the time that the child is introduced to the music notation, the child is reluctant to learn, because the child is resistant to change (Lanier-Keosaian). Conclusion Dyslexia is a disorder of the brain which might cause children to have marked frustration when trying to read music. Moreover, dyslexia also affects different skill sets which are vital for the learning of music, such as interfering with the dyslexic child's sense of rhythm and timing. The key to teaching dyslexic children is therefore different than the process in which a non-dyslexic child might learn, which is through learning notation. This might destroy the child's self-esteem and innate love of music, because it would be inevitably frustrating to attempt to teach the child notation, along with the other musical skills that the child will also have problems with, such as rhythm and timing. This would overload the child and set the child up for ultimate failure. However, if the child is first encouraged to learn music, at an early age, without worrying about whether the child can read and translate musical notation, this would seem to have a number of advantages. One of these advantages is that the child will have a chance to work on the fundamentals of rhythm and timing at a pace that is comfortable for the child, and the child will not also have to deal with the frustration of learning notes while he or she is learning the fundamentals. The Suzuki method would help with these early deficiencies, because it emphasizes repetition, and mastering one skill set before moving on to another. For the dyslexic child, that might mean that the rhythm skill set is mastered, then the timing skill set, then the musical process builds from this. This would give the child confidence, in that the child is taught the very basics of musical education. Once the child masters these basic concepts, it would then be time to teach the child to play the instrument, or sing, in a very naturalistic way, which involves the same way that the child learns to speak – by support, repetition and modeling. Then, and only then, is the child taught musical notation. By this point, the child is confident, in that the child is mastering the basics of musical ability, therefore, even though learning musical notation might be challenging for the child, the child presumably will be able to handle the frustration better, because the child is already confident in his or her core abilities. That said, Lanier-Keosaian criticizes the method, stating that it is akin to teaching a child to speak, without teaching the child to read and write. Lanier-Keosaian seems to miss the point of the Suzuki instruction. Suzuki does not completely ignore musical notation, but, rather, Suzuki recognizes that children need to have readiness to read music, just as they must have readiness to read text. Some children might be ready to read musical notation from day one. Others may take longer. Suzuki recognizes this, and the method is built around making sure that all students master the basics before they are introduced to musical notation. It seems that Lanier-Keosaian would approve of the traditional method of forcing children to learn musical notation, no matter their readiness for the task, and this traditional method would simply be a way of setting the dyslexic child up for failure. Therefore, it seems that the Suzuki method, with its emphasis on mastering core basics, one at a time, would be the best way for teaching dyslexic children music. Bibliography Forgeard, M., Schlaug, G., Norton, A., Rosam, C., Iyengar, U. & Winner, E. (2008) “The Relation Between Music and Phonological Processing in Normal-Reading Children and Children with Dyslexia.” Music and Phonological Processing, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 383-390. Gosling, W. (2007) “Being Dyslexic in Higher Education.” In Kiziewicz, M. & Biggs, I. (2007) CASCADE – Creativity Across Science, Art, Dyslexia, Education. Bath: University of Bath, pp. 63-66. Graves, J. (2007) “Dance, Desire and Dyslexia – Random Thoughts of Creativity.” In Kiziewicz, M. & Biggs, I. (2007) CASCADE – Creativity Across Science, Art, Dyslexia, Education. Bath: University of Bath, pp. 42-50. Hebert, S. & Cuddy, L. (2006)”Music-Reading Deficiencies and the Brain.” Advancers in Cognitive Psychology, vol. 2, no. 2-3, pp. 199-206. Hebert, S., Beland, R., Beckett, C., Cuddy, L., Peretz, I. & Wolforth, J. (2008) “A Case Study of Music and Text Dyslexia.” Music Perception, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 369-381. Juggins, M. (2007) “Dyslexics, Drowning in the Mainstream...Throw Them a Chance to Succeed and Not Another Spelling Test.” In Kiziewicz, M. & Biggs, I. (2007) CASCADE – Creativity Across Science, Art, Dyslexia, Education. Bath: University of Bath, pp. 59-69. Kiziewicz, M. & Biggs, I. (2007) CASCADE – Creativity Across Science, Art, Dyslexia, Education. Bath: University of Bath. Lanier-Keosaian, L. “Suzuki Method v. Traditional Method of Music Instruction.” Available at: http://www.lanier-keosaian.net/directories/learningtheories/suzuvstrad.pdf Lewis, J. (2007) “The Suzuki Method and American Music Education.” Available at: http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:IrdxQTZCv38J:scholar.google.com/+The+Suzuki+Method+and+American+Music+Education&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5 MacMillan, J. (2004) “Suzuki Training for Children with Dyslexia.” American Suzuki Journal, pp. 55-57. MacMillan, J. (2004) “Music and Dyslexia.” ISM Music Journal, pp. 144-149. MacMillan, J. (2004) “Music Teaching for Children with Dyslexia: The Suzuki Approach.” Sen Magazine, pp. 94-96. MacMillan, J. (2007) Music and Dyslexia – And How Suzuki Helps. Colchester, UK: Stour House Press. Mehl, M. (2009) “Cultural Translation in Two Directions: The Suzuki Method in Japan and Germany.” Research and Issues in Music Education, vol. 7, pp. 1-14. Miles, T. (2007) “Celebrating Dyslexia, Maths and Music.” In Kiziewicz, M. & Biggs, I. (2007) CASCADE – Creativity Across Science, Art, Dyslexia, Education. Bath: University of Bath, pp. 24-26. 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