Dyslexia - Literature review Example

Dyslexia Affiliation: Reading Non Dyslexia Dyslexia Reading mayseem an easy thing to do but it takes a lot of deciphering by the brain of what is being read before a connection is made and an understanding gained. While most children and adults have it fairly easy to read, children with dyslexia find it very hard to read a word and even harder to read a complete sentence in private or out loud compared to other children. This is so because dyslexia which simply known as a difficulty in reading, makes the brain take longer to decipher and connect letters and words (Tunmer and Greaney, 2010). As a result of reading being slower and harder for dyslexics, they read less and may find it a challenge to keep up with their peers in class. They therefore have to seek alternative ways to enable them read faster like the non-dyslexics. Children with dyslexia have differences in brain structure compared to those without dyslexia. It is these differences that cause the difficulty in reading. People with dyslexia have less white matter in their brain (Habib, 2000). White matter is correlated with increased reading skills and hence if it is reduced, then the reading skills will be reduced as well (Habib, 2000). Their gray matter is also less on one side of the brain which leads to problems when it comes to sound structure of the language (Booth and Burman, 2001). The brain of every human being is divided into two hemispheres: the left and right hemisphere. The left hemisphere is tasked with handling of functions such as speech, processing of the language and even reading. There are two systems in the brain which specifically process language and are situated within the lobes. These two are the left parietotemporal system and the left occipitotemporal area. These two areas are tasked with processing of letters and whole words which is what reading is all about. These two systems according to Heim & Keil, (2004) are different for children with dyslexia and those without dyslexia. Those with dyslexia are not fully developed which means that their processing of letters and full words will be troublesome compared to the systems of those without dyslexia which is fully developed. The brain of each person is made up of white and gray matter whose primary functions is to process information. The lining of the white matter which comprises of myelin facilitates communication between the nerves which make up the gray matter. Booth and Burman (2001) explain how their research has unearthed that children with dyslexia have less gray matter on their left parietotemporal area compared to those without dyslexia. With less gray matter, it means that these children will have problems processing information. Further research by (Deutsch, Dougherty, Bammer, Siok, Gabrieli, & Wandell, 2005) extrapolates how people with dyslexia also have less white matter still in the same left parietotemporal area of the brain. Since white matter is associated with reading skills, having less white matter leads to having lesser ability to communicate with one another through reading. The people without dyslexia have their left hemisphere functioning to the fullest with the gray matter and the white matter being in full capacity. They can therefore communicate with others through reading completely and fluently without any hitches. Their information is also processed without any problem (Deutsch, Dougherty, Bammer, Siok, Gabrieli, & Wandell, 2005). The other brain structural difference between people with dyslexia and without dyslexia revolves around the asymmetry of the hemispheres Heim and Keil (2004). People with dyslexia and are right handed have their hemispheres being symmetrical. This is the opposite of the people without dyslexia and who are right handed who have their hemispheres being asymmetrical. Their left hemisphere is larger than the right one. According to Heim and Keil (2004), this asymmetry and symmetry of the left hemisphere has an impact on the reading and processing of information on the children with dyslexia. The left hemisphere being larger means that the processes the brain handles such as speech and reading on the left hemisphere are more adequate and refined. However, if the left hemisphere is smaller in size than normal, it is an indication that the processes and brain functions handled will be reduced and less refined. This research is supported by the research by Richards (2001) and Papanicolaou, Pugh, Simos, and Mencl (2004) when they examined the brain through the magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Using the results from the imaging as well as various tasks provided by the researchers Shaywitz et al. (2002), it was discovered that children without dyslexia show more activation in the important brains areas associated with reading compared to children with dyslexia. The activation was more in the left hemisphere than in the right hemisphere. The conclusion made by the above mentioned researchers in addition to that by Torgesen, Rashotte, & Alexander, (2001) indicates that people with dyslexia have a metabolism that is different from that of people without dyslexia and this is indicated by the different ability of their brains to activate. The lack of activation contributes to the reading problem the dyslexics have which is non-existent to those without dyslexia. Brain imaging is now being used to find out early about children who are likely going to be developing dyslexia and those who will have normal brain functions without dyslexia. Research by Habib (2000) has unveiled that it is possible to trace the white and gray matter of the brain in the left hemisphere of the brain. This is compared to other white and gray matter of a normal human being at that stage of life. Any reduction in number is an indication of the early onset of dyslexia in the children. Those with normal amount of the two brain matter will be normal without dyslexia. Since there is still no early treatment, the other technologically available alternatives can start being used to make the children cope with the disorder at an early age and start learning how to read early. Is the same reading system universal? (&brief comment implications for different languages) Reading systems are universal but the readings are presented in different languages and interpreted differently according to the different cultures globally. The cultural and linguistic differences present a barrier to creating a uniform form of assistance for children with dyslexia. The lack of uniformity brought about by the barriers also prevent some children from other cultures benefit from the technologies mentioned above or even enjoy the different forms of learning available to assist dyslexics (Tunmer and Greaney, 2010). Universal reading systems include things like alphabets and numbers being similar worldwide but their presentation is what differs and this is what matters to people. There is evidence of some communities in Russia especially in the rural areas teaching children in mother tongues. This therefore means that the children with dyslexia are disadvantaged even more as they receive no special treatment or even recognition of their learning disabilities and do not get to enjoy the reading and learning assistance the rest are offered (Tunmer and Greaney, 2010). If they are recognized, they will be given the minimal form of assistance in as far as reading and learning is concerned with little or no use of the technological assistance apps and even devices discussed above. These two kinds of children from these two different locations will therefore relate differently with the world. As one advances and integrates effectively with the rest of the society, the other will remain a social outcast for a longer period of their life and may have difficulties adopting later even once they get assistance (Booth and Burman, 2001). References Booth, J.R., & Burman, D.D. (2001). Development and disorders of neurocognitive systems for oral language and reading. Learning Disability Quarterly, 24, 205-215. Deutsch, G.K., Dougherty, R.F., Bammer, R., Siok, W.T., Gabrieli, J.D., & Wandell, B. (2005). Childrens reading performance is correlated with white matter structure measured by diffusion tensor imaging. Cortex, 41, 354-363. Habib, M. (December, 2000). The neurological basis of developmental dyslexia: An overview and working hypothesis. Journal of Neurology, 12, 2373-2399. Heim, S., & Keil, A. (2004). Large-scale neural correlates of developmental dyslexia. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 13, 125-140. Papanicolaou, A.C., Pugh, K.R., Simos, P.G., & Mencl, W.E. (2004) “Functional brain imaging: An introduction to concepts and applications.” In P. McCardle & V. Chhabra (Eds.), The voice of evidence in reading research. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks. Richards, T.L. (2001). Functional magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopic imaging of the brain: Application of the fMRI and fMRS to reading disabilities and education. Learning Disability Quarterly, 24, 189-203. Shaywitz, B.A., Shaywitz, S.E., Pugh, K.R., Mencl, W.E., Fulbright, R.K., Skudlarksi, P., et al. (2002). Disruption of posterior brain systems for reading in children with developmental dyslexia. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 101-110. Torgesen, J.K., Rashotte, C.A., & Alexander, A. (2001). “Principles of fluency instruction in reading: Relationships with established empirical outcomes.” In M. Wolf (Ed.), Dyslexia, fluency, and the brain. Timonium, MD: York. Tunmer, W. and Greaney, K. (2010). Defining Dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43 (3), 229-243. Doi: 10.1177/0022219409345009 Read More