Drug Addict in the family and treatment - Literature review Example

?Drug Addict in the family and treatment: Introduction: This paper is primarily based on contemplating the widespread influences produced by drug addiction on the addicts themselves and their families. There a couple of factors like environmental, socio-economic, psychological, and genetic factors which highly influence and determine the rate of drug addiction in a country. Amidst the violence and unethical incidents erupting out of high level of drug addiction in different areas, families of adolescent drug addicts get excessively exposed to wide range of grave inconveniences. “Siblings in the family may find their needs and concerns ignored while their parents react to the continuous crises involving the adolescent who abuses alcohol or drugs” (SAMSHA News Release, 2009). Not only do people have to hide their relatedness to those particular family members who happen to be chronic drug addicts when socializing, but also they are subjected to much worry, frustration, and desperateness. “The needs and concerns of siblings or other family members may get ignored because of crises caused by substance abuse” (Lameman, 2012). Children born to such addicted people do not get spared of the harmful consequences of drug addiction as many grave clinical disorders are highly common among such poor ill-fated children. “If a child is living with an alcoholic or drug user, the child is likely to develop a warped sense of normal when it comes to using these substances” (More, 2008). Drug addiction also gives birth to the malignant issue of domestic violence. This literature review is an effort to explore the issue of drug addiction, the impact produced by it on families, important factors influencing it, and the state of treatment facilities available for drug addicts with special reference to the Republic of Ireland. State of drug addiction in Ireland: According to research studies done in Ireland which have raised concern over the substance abuse issue, alcohol and other hard drugs are breaking many families and leaving many children homeless. The number of newer drug abuse cases is also found to have increased by “100% in the Western area, which includes Galway, Mayo and Roscommon” (Long, cited in Markey, 2008). Moreover, it is a sad fact revealed by Census of Population of Ireland that the number of children in a family in which at least one parent was found abusing drugs was found to be way higher than in a family in which no record of substance abuse was found. “The average number of children in a drug abuser's family was 5.6. This figure is markedly larger than the national average of 3.5” (Carr, Kelly, & Hart, 1980). This is because sexual abuse comes in handy with substance abuse issue and proves to be toxic for families. Such deficient parental models also prove to be equally toxic for the children born to drug abusers and many such children in Ireland have found to be dealing with the evil consequences of retarded socialization. Such children have been observed to have no idea of how to handle the relationships and develop into dead pans in terms of emotional intelligence. Research done on drug abusers who attended a drug advisory and treatment center in Central Dublin revealed that “the age of subjects ranged from 16 to 50 years, with a mean of 24 years, seven months. 73% were under 26 years of age at the time of interview” (Carr, Kelly, & Hart, 1980). This shows that youth is highly targeted by the drug dealers regardless of racial, cultural or ethnic background. Evil habits such as substance abuse or drug addiction stretched over a period of so many years are understandably hard to be eradicated and this point poses malignant risks for drug addicts. Heroin has been found to be the most common substance abused in Ireland among other drugs. “There was a 96% increase in the number of new opiate cases who lived outside Dublin, from 226 in 2001 to 442 in 2006” (Reynolds, Fanagan, Bellerose, & Long, 2008). Abusing heroin intravenously is also becoming popular among young Irish abusers which poses a serious threat to the official authorities since youth can sure play a big role for societal betterment if directed in the right way. But if left undirected and unsupervised, youth can readily fall into the pit of drugs and drug-related criminal activites, especially in school years when there is a lot of peer pressure to try various types of drugs. Heroin epidemic in Ireland has proven to be seriously and critically devastating not only for the youth, but also for adult drug abusers. In line with the heroin-related research results, another important fact observed by the general Irish population survey was that “the main problem drugs reported by new cases were cannabis (41%), opiates (39%) and cocaine (9%)” (Condon, 2008). This shows that along with heroin, cocaine has also emerged as one of the mainstream problem drugs. Another deplorable reality is that the number of Irish individuals returning for drug treatment to health care centers who had also been previously treated has also increased from 2,588 in 2001 to 2,781 in 2006 and this increase in the number of returning cases “is an indicator of the chronic nature of problem drug use and the level of demand for services into the future” (Health Research Board, cited in Condon, 2008). The prevalence of truancy among young drug abusers has significantly increased over the past years in many areas in Ireland, though the rate of some substances which are abused has also declined marginally in some areas. This is noted by the number of individuals entering drug treatment programs from 2001-2006. For example, 2008 national research report involving in-depth information on Irish drug abuse reveals that “the incidence of treated problem drug use among 15–64-year-olds living in Ireland was marginally lower in 2006 (74.8 cases per 100,000) than in 2001 (75.7 cases)” (Connolly et al., 2008). Most drug addicts happen to be early school leavers: According to the latest report published by HRB, Dublin, “a total of 68,754 cases aged between 15 and 64 years were treated for problem drug use in Ireland between 2001 and 2006” (Markey, 2008). The fact that most of the drug addicts happen to be early school dropouts also raises a concern and much research has been done regarding the relation between education and addiction. The culture of leaving education at a very early stage for roaming on the streets for the rest of lives is found common among drug addicts observed in different areas of the world. The average age for leaving school among drug addicts who were studied in a research study conducted by Carr, Kelly, & Hart (1980) in Central Dublin, Ireland was found to be 16 years. 70% of subjects had advanced no further than high school or middle schools and a markedly high frequency of regular and prolonged truancy was also reported which seriously raised the concern and propelled more research on drug abuse issue in Ireland. The low level of education attainment among narcotic abusers or alcoholics has been noted by several researchers in Ireland. Drug addicts themselves, while at school in their early years, have been observed to remain absent from schools often. Such truant behavior potentiates the substance abuse inclinations leading the youth to fall for drugs at an age when such things also appear to be glamorous and ideal. Therefore, such children are often left to deal with the consequences of financial shortcomings later on in life and being unemployed, are left to survive on a combination of past savings, social welfare, and criminal activities. According to Irish drug-related research, the number of intravenous drug abusers with markedly significant anti-social behavior is also found to raise problems on social, educational, and psychological levels. The early age of 14 or 16 at which Irish drug abusers leave school generates severe social problems because obviously such abusers need money to pour into their addiction and for this purpose, they fall in the silken snare of crimes leading to high rate of burglary and street theft in Ireland. Research claims that the rate of drug addiction is found way higher among high school dropouts when minds are raw and emotions are vulnerable. Adult drug addicts have to struggle with more potent addictions given their addictions usually start from high school years. Children of drug addicts are forced as a result to say goodbye to their schools and their spouses are left to deal with the gravity of having no money. Impacts of drugs and addiction on the family: According to research made public by the Alcohol and Drug Research Unit at HRB in Ireland, the largest percentage of 76 by which drug abuse cases have been reported to be increased is observed in the South Eastern area which includes Carlow, Waterford, and Wexford (Reynolds et al., 2008). Partners of these observed adult drug addicts have been found to be posed to the most dangerous consequences. This is because such addicts often tend to put their addictions first and give them preference over their partners’ needs. The nature of problems ranges from domestic fights over financial issues to arguments over emotional issues. The act of violence is always associated with a drug addict which may include hitting, smashing, throwing things etc. It is understandable that such violent acts can be devastating for the children or spouse leading to psychosocial disturbance which mostly also becomes persistent. Also, children born to parents who abuse alcohol or other substances are way more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol themselves at an earlier stage in life. The feature of psychotic illness is mostly observed in such children. According to a research study done by National Association for Children of Alcoholics (n.d.), addiction tends to run in families and children of addicted parents are highly likely to have addictive personalities. They are also more likely to be tricked into seeing the issue of substance abuse as a normal thing which should not be despised as heavily as it is done presently. However, sexual and emotional abuse still form the most common risks generated by substance abuse at homes. “In a sample of parents who significantly maltreat their children, alcohol abuse is specifically associated with physical maltreatment, while cocaine exhibits a specific relationship to sexual maltreatment” (Famularo, Kinscherff, & Fenton, 1992). Substance abuse poses wide range of social anxieties and difficulties for the families of addicted people. It is a wise point that the treatment plan should involve the entire family of a drug addict and not just him/her alone. This is because many times, family members and friends of a drug addict do not know how to process their feelings and emotions in an appropriate way and hence, are reduced to develop many serious psychological disorders like long-term depression and psychosis. According to Treatment Improvement Protocol, involving families and friends can in finding new ways for “the person who abuses alcohol or drugs to live without substances of abuse and to ameliorate the impact of chemical dependency on both the patient and the family” ( SAMSHA News Release, 2009). Employing a treatment plan which would involve friends and families of the drug addicts seems like a wise idea for effective treatment. According to Lameman (2012), severe addiction gives birth to even more severe interpersonal problems for the friends and families which develop into psychological disorders, if left untreated. Research proves that gender-based violence directed by addict men against their partners is increasing all over the globe which proves that addiction ruins families instantly and irrecoverably. Among such abuses, emotional abuse and blackmail, excessive possessiveness, and sexual abuse happen to be the most observed forms of violence. Research conducted by the Department of Pedagogy of the University of Granada revealed that “about six out of ten male drug-abusers direct some type of violence against their intimate partners” (ANI, 2011). Such addicts are virtually incapable of looking forward to their family’s needs which badly aggravates the family life and makes the children feel highly insecure in social lives. “It would be difficult for these children to make friends because of the fear that someone in the outside world will find out about their secret, or will witness the chaos firsthand” (More, 2008). Another family problem originating from drug addiction relates to the issue of money which nearly always is senselessly poured into addiction. This action raises highly complicated problems for the entire family. Addicts themselves are rendered homeless as a result of making dangerous financial choices and lay-offs. Marriage breakups are also highly common in the lives of drug addicts. Disregarding or devaluing behavior kills the marital bond like a house on fire. “The underlying attitudes of the verbally abusive husband (or wife) are as crippling to the relationship as the foul words and verbal assaults” (King, 2010). Many times, substance or alcohol abusers turn to prostitution, pornography or other means of cheating when they feel they are not being understood by their spouses and especially, when they are forced by their spouses in any possible way to give up their addictions. According to the research study conducted at the University of Granada, “women remain in this type of relationship as a result of the pressure exerted by their male partners and of the romantic myths of unconditional and imbalanced love” (Lopez, cited in ANI, 2011). This leaves the children born to such addicts to deal with sad and dark futures having no education and money. So much in such little time is deteriorated by drug addiction that friends and families are left utterly amazed and shocked at the loss. “Being under the influence of drugs and alcohol will overall impair your judgment and can lead to neglect or harm” (Lameman, 2012). At times, drug addict parents tend to show love and care for their children out of sobriety but at other times, they get reckless and often hit their family members when not knowing how to process their emotions. Such an inconsistent behavior leads the children to develop flawed understanding of the emotions and the world, at large. Such a flawed and inconsistent care displayed by an addict parent “lead to a child that either has to grow up quickly and assume adult responsibilities, or one that rebels and gives up trying to do well in school or life” (More, 2008). Impact of CBT on drug abuse issue in terms of assisting: The role which could be played by employing the tool of family therapy is already mentioned and contemplated in the discussion above. It is becoming a general consensus among psychologists all over the globe that family therapy should be considered and valued as a kind of tool which could be sued to address a wide range of issues including depression, addiction, and other destructive behavioral patterns. By the act of including families for questioning and discussing myriad critically important things, many crucially sensitive and intricate secrets can be revealed which can obviously play a phenomenal role in the betterment of the individual experiencing destructive or disturbing behavioral modes. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy or CBT is another mode of therapy which has by now gained immense popularity around the globe and which should never be discarded while treating or addressing the cases of substance abuse or alcoholism. CBT is highly capable of aiding the devastated abusers in practicing effective coping skills which should be a crucial element in treatment plans at Irish drug abuse treatment centers. “Coping skills deficits are viewed as a major risk factor because of the likelihood that they may lead to a reliance on alcohol or drugs as the default coping strategy” (Kadden, 2002). It is the kind of therapy which has proven to be equally useful for depression, anxiety, addiction, and other destructive phobias which shows that not addiction alone, but myriad behavioral evils coming in handy with addiction like suicidal thinking patterns, persistent anxiety, and depression can also be treated with the aid of CBT. The primary goal of cognitive-behavior theory is to go all the way through while treating an individual dependent on alcohol or substances for revealing the needs for which drugs are being used actually in the first place. The second goal is to make the abusers practice new skills to cope with certain problematic issues for which they feel stimulated to use drugs because “through repeated experience of the apparent short term benefits of drinking or drug use, they may become the preferred way of coping, especially in the absence of other coping skills” (Kadden, 2002). When employed at drug treatment or drug rehabilitation centers for helping patients experiencing negative psychosocial consequences of substance dependence, the goal of CBT becomes to make the abusers identify, learn, and realize the abnormal thought patterns which have great potential of influencing behavior in a markedly bad and socially unacceptable way. Social background of Irish drug abusers: When Irish researchers scrutinized the social factors and social background of the Irish abusers with the help of a study involving about 100 drug abusers in a drug advisory and treatment center in central Dublin, results deduced implied that most of the abusers happened to be young males who had not achieved further than Intermediate Certificates. Another study revealed that “between 2001 and 2006, the median age at which new cases commenced illicit use of drugs was 15 years across all regions” (Markey, 2008). Reportedly, there was also revealed a significant lack of treatment and support facilities for the young abusers which raises concern about the reduced level of efforts made by government for treating substance dependence. Another important fact brought forward by the research stretched from 2001 to 2006 and done on cases entering different Irish treatment centers for problem drug use was that the unemployment rate varied from those abusing drugs associated with parties and others abusing harder drugs like heroin and cocaine. “The highest rates of employment were among those who used drugs commonly associated with social events, and the lower rates were among those who used opiates and benzodiazepines” (Markey, 2008). Also, majority happened to be unmarried and unemployed while the only means of financial support were revealed to be subjects’ own savings, parental support, and criminal activities like street theft, trading drugs, prostitution, and forging cheques. Adoption of such grave and devastating means of support by the abusers has seriously interfered with the Irish social stability and raised concern for the government. It is understandable that most of these people dependent on substances also happen to be early school dropouts due to which unemployment rate is revealed to be rocketing among them which leads to a high level of street theft consequently. While about 90% of the observed subjects were reported to be engaged in some kind of criminal act at some time in their lives to support the drug abuse habit, “60% of subjects admitted to at least one non-drug related non-violent criminal act such as stealing, housebreaking, vandalism, forging cheques or obtaining things by false pretences” (Carr, Kelly, & Hart, 1980). Impact of the Irish government on substance abuse issue in terms of social policies: The Alcohol and Drug Research Unit at HRB, Dublin has proposed an effective policy of social reintegration for suppressing the prevailing substance dependence related consequences. The fact that most, in fact all of the abusers tend to be excluded socially by the surrounding people does nothing better, but only adds to the abusers’ depression and criminal tendencies. Social integration is not an easy step to take since convincing the society at large to be open about the substance dependence issue and include the abusers in society is a feat which could take decades to be accomplished. Social exclusion, in itself, is extremely potential of leading an individual towards drugs and alcohol. “Social exclusion, in the form of homelessness and insecure accommodation, inadequate education and poor employment skills, is closely associated with problematic drug use” (Keane, 2007). That is why social integration has emerged as a kind of social policy in Ireland through which issues like homelessness, unemployment, depression, isolation, and abuse can be addressed. According to an extensive literature research in Ireland by the National Drug Treatment Reporting System, the concept of social integration of abusers is not an old one and has been around since 1960s and the addressing the link between social inclusion and drug treatment has been repeatedly emphasized by the Irish researchers, though never been practiced thoroughly. Research claims that despite many efforts and policy proposals to practice social reintegration nationwide for improving education and employment rate among Irish drug abusers and alcoholics, actually social reintegration measures have been practiced very unevenly and at a much reduced rate, compared to other drug prevention and treatment services offered by the Irish government. The link between homelessness and unemployment is supposedly a strong indicator of drug use and social exclusion and research reveals that of all the individuals coming to the Irish drug treatment centers for drug use issue in 2003, “just under 20% were in employment, compared to the national average of 65%, and 61% were unemployed, compared to the national average of 4.6%” (Keane, 2007). The Alcohol National Policy is an alcohol dependence-addressing policy introduced by the Irish government and requires both environmental and individual strategies, while it lays emphasis on moderation in alcohol consumption by controlling prices through taxation and other official measures. A wide range of health and social problems arise from alcoholism and the attempts made at government level to control the alcohol prices through taxation has helped in curtailing those problems to some extent (Edwards et al., cited in Ireland, Department of Health, 1996). Some of the other efforts made by Irish government to control the rate of alcoholism-related consequences include the enforcement of drink driving legislation nationwide with the help of random breath tests and controlling the alcohol availability by limiting alcohol access to underage drinkers. But, Irish researchers profess that this National Alcohol Policy strongly needs to be followed by a nationwide Substance Use Surveillance Unit. Research reveals that Irish drug problem is mainly a heroin problem which raises issues for the Irish government. Majority of the drug use cases are also reported to be concentrated in Dublin’s inner-city areas where unemployment, social problems, and poverty seem to be the norm. While the Eastern Health Board and Government have introduced and implemented some policies in Dublin in response to the growing drug problem with respect to the environmental context of drug problem, still the social and economic issues related to substance abuse are ignored with the result that governmental support does not go far from medical treatment of the abuser, and that also very limitedly. “The failure of the statutory authorities to respond to the crisis has been perceived by some critics as indicative of a policy of containment of the drug problem in the inner city areas” (O’Gorman, 1998). While such policies introduced by government may help in reducing harm related to human dependency on alcohol and substances, the kind of social and economic contexts of drug use vibrant in Ireland would still play a role in raising that harm at individual level. Link between genetic factors and the drug abuse issue: The understanding of link between genetic factors and drug addiction is still questionable though much research has been going on this particular subject in the past years and the nature of this relation is still considered controversial as well by many researchers over the globe. There does not exist a general consensus about the credibility of this link and further investigation into this aspect of addiction is highly recommended for designing effective prevention and treatment modalities later on. Presently, many reputable psychologists have discussed much about addictive personalities and how an individual can be more prone to abuse substances than others on the basis of possessing an addictive personality and particular gene interaction. Still, being prone to addiction due to a certain genetic makeup does not mean that one eventually will have to become an addict. It only means that by studying and assessing the genetic variation in terms of drug addiction, careful strategies can be planned beforehand for the betterment of the humanity at large. Allelic variants of certain addiction genes contributing to drug abuse vulnerability like DRD2 could lead to genetic variation and control “differential drug reinforcing properties, alter drug pharmacodynamics or pharmacokinetics, influence "sensation-seeking" personality traits that may facilitate exposure to drugs, exacerbate drug toxicities, or minimize "protective" factors such as hangovers” (Uhl, Elmer, LaBuda, & Pickens, 2000). The issue of genetic makeup and the influence exerted by it on addiction can be believed to some extent by the fact that though it is harder, even impossible, for some people to quit drugs once they start, many can be found who quit drugs cold turkey and still do not experience any bad health effects. Also, an individual feeling sick from a certain drug might actually make others feel good about it. While some claim that genes play an important but not inevitable role in propelling addiction and opinion that certain genes can interact to raise genetic susceptibility to substance dependence in an individual, others defy this by saying that humans cannot be born addicts and no such thing as genetic susceptibility to addiction exists. According to Hanson (cited in Genetic Science Learning Center, 2012), there actually exist a couple of genes which may make one fancy drugs and abuse them too. “The A1 allele of the dopamine receptor gene DRD2 is more common in people addicted to alcohol or cocaine” (Genetic Science Learning Center, 2012). ALDH2 is another gene identified by scientists which is claimed to be protective against abusing alcohol. It is said that non-alcoholics carry two copies of the ALDH2 gene variation due to which alcoholism does not target them as it may target others. CYP2A6 is another protective gene identified which is claimed to be protective against smoking and is reported to exist more commonly in non-smokers. “Non-smokers are more likely than smokers to carry a protective gene, CYP2A6, which causes them to feel more nausea and dizziness from smoking” (Genetic Science Learning Center, 2012). All such identified addiction genes are rapidly becoming potential drug targets for addiction treatment. Scientists in China have identified as many as 400 such addiction genes which can make a person more vulnerable to abuse alcohol or substance while in-depth analysis of over 1000 reputable medical journals linking genetics to human substance or alcohol abuse susceptibility has led many experts to believe in “genetic factors accounting for up to 60 percent of a person's vulnerability to drug addiction, with environmental factors accounting for the remainder” (Reuters, 2008). Environmental factors and mortality rate with reference to Irish drug abuse issue: There are certain environmental domains of influence identified by research like community, class, family, friends, and schools which interfere with substance dependence. Much research has also been done on the peer pressure faced by many around the globe to try various kinds of drugs which indicates the role that could be played by environment in increasing the drug addiction rate. Lundberg (2012) claims that peer pressure forms the single biggest factor that could heavily contribute to drug susceptibility rate. Fear of social exclusion faced by many at schools and colleges does make many desperate enough o try anything and do any wild activity just to be accepted in the click. Having friends who tend to engage in problematic activities like street theft and doing drugs while at campuses also foments the drug abuse risk. Hanging out with friends who display positive or favorable attitudes towards drugs is also capable of slowly changing the mind setup of an individual and may also lead to total brainwash. The influence played by community should also be considered seriously as “statistics show that if a person's community has favorable attitudes toward drug use, firearms and crime, their risk is increased” (Lundberg, 2012). Domestic violence, other family conflicts, and low level of commitment to school also potentiate the drug abuse risk, reportedly. As mentioned already, children born to addict parents are many times more likely to fall for drug addiction than others born to normal parents which shows that parents who have favorable attitudes towards alcohol and drugs can play a big role in leading their children adopt a positive attitude for abusing drugs. According to a credible Irish qualitative research carried out by Cox and Whitaker (2009) in Dublin, the circulation and economics of hard drugs like heroin was revealed to be centered within inner-city working-class marginalized communities and from where most of the subjects involved in the study belonged. Such areas “were characterised by high rates of intergenerational unemployment, low levels of educational attainment, social deprivation and economic marginalization” (Cox & Whitaker, 2009), which shows that growing up in a risk environment foments addiction rate also. It is a deplorable reality revealed by the United Nations’ World Drug Report 2011 that Irish drug-related death rate is among the highest in Europe according to the Irish Times (O’Brien, 2011). This piece of news reflects the badly aggravated state of drug addiction faced by both Irish government and public. The report reveals that while the heroin problem has largely been solved in most of the European countries, drug prevalence has markedly increased in Ireland in contrast. Along with heroin prevalence, cocaine use has also rocketed in many Irish areas. The highly worrisome figures on death rates reflect the growing drug abuse problem in Ireland. The highest mortality rates among European countries were shown in Ireland and Ukraine “more than 100 drug-related deaths per one million inhabitants aged 15-64” (O’Brien, 2011). Though needle exchange programs have been introduced by Irish government and they have also helped in reducing the morbidity rates to some extent, it is sad that only one full-time needle exchange service available in Ireland. Majority of the heroine abusers reside in Dublin and the fact that there are less than 200 residential detoxification beds in the entire country has caused the levels of drug-related deaths in Ireland to rise from seven in 1990 to 90 in 1999 (Condon, 2003). Conclusion: Concluding, this much becomes clear from the above discussion that though addiction has always remained a big issue in Ireland but it has become a big problem presently. This is also a sad reality that more and more children are getting exposed to the dangerous effects of substance abuse in terms of domestic violence, physical abuse, insecurity, suicidal thoughts, and other psychosocial influences. Such stress-related physical and psychological disorders are found quite common among friends and relatives of drug addicts and which should be addressed adequately at the treatment centers in the form of family therapy. In order to address the growing problem of drug addiction and related increasing death rates, Irish official authorities undoubtedly should play a bigger role in restraining the growing evil of drug addiction. Mental health consumers and treatment professionals have sought phenomenal nature of help from therapies like CBT over the past years which is why Irish government should design strategies about ensuring full-time availability of CBT at every treatment center for drug abuse. Environmental and socioeconomic risk factors make up a phenomenally big part of the entire drug addiction issue and should be assessed deeply before implementing a certain treatment policy. References: ANI. (2011, Mar 4). Most male drug-addicts abuse their partners. THE TIMES OF INDIA. Retrieved from http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-03-04/man-woman/28658584_1_intimate-partners-sexual-abuse-granada Carr, A. J., Kelly, M. G., & Hart, I. (1980). Irish Drug Abusers I: Their Social Background. 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Retrieved from http://www.drugsandalcohol.ie/11438/ King, J. (2010). Verbal Emotional Abuse – Attitudes and Actions of Verbally Abusive Partners. Retrieved from http://methdrugaddiction.com/46344/verbal-emotional-abuse-attitudes-and-actions-of-verbally-abusive-partners/ Lameman, B. A. (2012, Feb 2). Effects of Substance Abuse on Families. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved from http://www.chicagotribune.com/sns-health-addiction-families,0,2311189.story National Association for Children of Alcoholics (n.d.). CHILDREN OF ADDICTED PARENTS: IMPORTANT FACTS. Retrieved from http://www.nacoa.net/pdfs/addicted.pdf O’Brien, C. (2011, Jun 24). Irish drug death rate among highest in Europe. THE IRISH TIMES. Retrieved from http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2011/0624/1224299525092.html O'Gorman, A. (1998). “Illicit drug use in Ireland: an overview of the problems and the policies.” International Journal of Drug Issues, 28, 155-166. Reuters. (2008, Jan 8). Drug addiction genes identified. REUTERS. Retrieved from http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/01/08/us-drugs-china-addiction-idUSHKG24467620080108 Reynolds, S., Fanagan, S., Bellerose, D., & Long, J. (2008). Trends in treated problem drug use in Ireland, 2001 to 2006. Retrieved from http://www.hrb.ie/uploads/tx_hrbpublications/Trends2.pdf SAMSHA News Release. (2009). Addiction Treatment Should Include Family Therapy. Retrieved from http://alcoholism.about.com/od/fam/a/blsam041004.htm Uhl, G. R., Elmer, G. I., LaBuda, M. C., & Pickens, R. W. (2000). HUMAN SUBSTANCE ABUSE VULNERABILITY AND GENETIC INFLUENCES. Retrieved from http://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000174/CH170.html Read More