Research Knowledge Assessment - Literature review Example

Research Knowledge Assessment This paper discusses philosophical framework of research, different concepts of research designs and approaches. Under the philosophical framework of research, the paper establishes the relationship between empiricism to quantitative research methodology. The paper defines the concepts of scientific method, positivism, and post-positivism. The paper describes and differentiates population and sample and expounds on the important elements of variable. Students new to research will benefit from the insight provided by the paper into the importance of having hypotheses and research problems in research work. There is valuable information on the ways of reporting findings and the ways and importance of identifying assumptions underlying a research work and their limitations and delimitations. The paper closes with a section on the advantages and disadvantages of different program evaluation methods, action research and research designs. Research Knowledge Assessment The Philosophical Foundations of Research Research entails the collection and analysis of data about a phenomenon and for a purpose. Different groups use the outcomes of research for different purpose including decision making and informing policymaking. The knowledge generated has to accurate as inaccurate information could affect many aspects of human life. Cargan (2007) notes that research can be applied, action and evaluation based on the intended purpose. It is expedient to provide an understanding of the relationship between empiricism and quantitative research methodology. Empiricism utilizes observation and experience to generate knowledge. As such, empiricism provides knowledge from data that appeal to sensory experience. Quantitative research methodology relates with empiricism in a number of ways. Weathington et al (2010) observes that quantitative methods uses assumptions that replicate the assumption that any phenomenon can be explained using the scientific method. Quantitative research methodology utilizes observations to study human behaviour. The scientific method is a way of scientific enquiry that is guided by hypothesis and empirical reasoning. An enquiry that uses scientific method makes an observation about a phenomenon hypothesizes and makes assumptions about a phenomenon and proceeds to gather information to prove or disprove the hypotheses. The scientific method requires that an experiment be tested and retested until it produces uniform outcomes without discrepancies. Positivism holds that social life can be investigated to provide valid and reliable knowledge about how it operates. The knowledge that results from such endeavour can be instrumental in modifying and improving social life. Positivism moves that social sciences should focus only on the observations of elements of social phenomena that appeal to the senses. It charges that theories used in social sciences are supposed to be firmly founded on facts that can be verified. Post-positivism refers to the theoretical advances that deviate from positivism as known originally (Creswell, 2009). Post-positivism deviate from positivism in that it reckons that observation and knowledge are not trustworthy. Post-positivism utilizes many measures and observation and triangulates against diverse sources in order to achieve objectivity. Objectivity refers to value neutrality and suspension of biases in conducting research. Objectivity is important in research as it helps capture facts founded on the scientific method and from sources of information that are credible. Punch (2005) explains that this helps in interpreting and analyzing data guided by the observable facts of the research findings avoiding subjectivity. Ensuring objectivity in research is challenging to research, as it requires them to take a detached stance in making reliable and objective conclusions. Researchers have to battle with the natural inclination to judge phenomena based on their subjective opinions. Scientific realism and social constructivism help researchers to establish certain assumptions about human real life suctions. In scientific realism, researchers seek to establish the cause-and-effect elements of social life from numerical data representing different variables and constructs. According to Hallowell et al (2005), social constructivists use ways of collecting data in close proximity with actors in social phenomenon. Advocacy or liberator models of research hold multiple realities exist that depend on economic, political, and social contexts. Proponents of advocacy or liberator model believe that research should promote freedom from oppressive and incapacitating environments. Pragmatism incorporates different approaches and identifies which approaches work for different situations. Pragmatists focus on identifying a problem and evaluating available alternatives of solving the given problem. Theoretical and conceptual frameworks are important elements in a research study. They bring theories and concepts suitable for explaining phenomena or the relationship between certain variables. Mill (2002) emphasizes that conceptual framework differs from theoretical framework it is utilized in qualitative research to establish relationships between variables whose outcomes are used in theorizing and informing theoretical framework. On the other hand, theoretical framework is used in quantitative research methodology and helps establish causal relationships between different concepts and ideas. There is a similarity between conceptual framework and theoretical framework in that both help in the development of research questions and hypothesis, and in the reinforcement and creation of change in research studies. Core Concepts for Research Design Often, a research derives from research questions that researchers pose which can be answered through the collection and interpretation of relevant data. Kothari (2005) reckons that research questions are so structured as to identify the variables, meanings, processes, and themes that researchers intend to investigate. A hypothesis allows a researcher to make tentative conclusion about a phenomenon. The data collected thereafter is used to test whether the claim made in the hypothesis holds. For instance, a researcher could set out to study the effect of incentives on the level of investment in a give industry. The researcher could hypothesize that incentives raises the level of investments in a given industry holding some parameters constant. If they collected data and after analyzing and interpreting it the researchers finds that incentives do not raise the level of investments, the researchers would disprove the hypothesis. Researchers develop relationship between variables from identifying, desiring, and explaining trends derived from research study problems. According to Maree and Van (2009) these trends demonstrate that the research problem is viable for study and research can therefore proceed to seeking an understanding of the tendency of responses that these trends elicit from different individuals. For example, a researcher may seek to understand how consumers respond to change in prices in commodities. The research may have observed certain trends of how few people respond to changes in price and launching a research into the phenomenon helps them establish how people would respond to price changes on large scale. If the researcher had not observed changes in behaviour among few people, he will be launching into a phenomenon that has little or no literature documented. As such, the researcher is said to be engaging in an exploration. Qualitative research is most viable when seeking an understanding of phenomenon with little or no documented literature. Normally, though, identification of a research problem is followed by literature review. Reading sources that have relevant material on the topic of interest helps the researcher to specify the purpose of the study. Quantitative researchers ask narrow and specific questions that help them to come up with observable and measurable data on given variables. These questions include accompany hypotheses, research questions and purpose statement and they are stated specifically and narrowly to help researchers to derive a number of variables to help them in the study. Literature review uses both primary and secondary sources that can include electronic resources, government documents, monographs, dissertations, scholarly books, journal articles, and reports. Lewin and Somekh (2005) caution that care is needed when choosing the sources to include or leave out of one’s literature review. Strong sources are the ones that rate the quality of their methods and are peer reviewed. Effective sources are ones that are latest, preferably going back five years, to ensure that the methods and conclusions used in them are current and updated. Sources that describe original research do not emphasize research methods but only describe empirical research hence their designation as secondary. Sample and population are important elements in research and there are techniques used in selected samples. There are random and non-random sampling techniques that are used in both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. Sampling helps researchers to explore groups within populations because studying whole populations is uneconomical and cumbersome. Population defines the larger group selected for study whereas a sample is a fraction of that population. Lodico and Vegtle (2010) offer that there are differences in the sampling techniques used in both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Random sampling techniques are used in quantitative research and they help to generalize the larger population. Random sampling provides equal chance for every member of the population to be included in the sample. Qualitative research utilizes purposive sampling that carefully selects certain members of the population to participate in the research. A variable is a measurable and observable attribute unique to different persons in the population. The variables for which researchers seek their causal differences are called independent variables. Maree and Van (2009) argue that dependent variables are those variables that result from the variable under study. For example when a researcher investigates whether a pay rise increases people’s spending, the level of spending becomes the dependent variable and the pay rise is the independent variable. There concept of validity is important to any research endeavour and features both internally and externally. Internal validity has to do with the effects that experimental manipulation has on the dependent variables. External validity spells out the extent to which the findings of a research study can be generalized. Validity helps gauge the change that researchers seek to measure by seeing to it that data is collected accurately. For example, examiners consider the validity of administering any given test to measure the ability of given group of students. According to Kothari (2005), in-depth discussions provided evidence for the validity of techniques used in experimental research designs. On the other hand, non-experimental approaches use causal-comparative research in establishing whether independent variables will have significant effects on dependent variables. Reliability has to do with the ability of research measures and methods to be replicated. Researchers subject research measures to many other tests seeking to establish whether they produce consistent results. For example, the tool used to measure the level of patient satisfaction with the quality if health service should give consistent outcomes when tried in different places provided the conditions remain the same. Validity and reliability requires researchers to take caution when collecting data so as to ensure quality. Research studies have to consider assumptions, limitations, and delimitations. These elements are considered because of the ethical and legal implications of research on persons. Researchers have the duty to ensure that their actions do not cause harm to participants. Many ethical dilemmas confront researchers while in the process of doing research. There are boards that that are set up to ensure that researchers comply with legal and ethical guidelines in the process doing research. Confidentiality, protection from harm, and informed consent are measures that help institute ethical considerations for both qualitative and quantitative researchers. Commentators suggest ecological, relational, deontological, and utilitarian ethics as crucial models of fostering ethical conduct in qualitative research. Lodico and Vegtle (2010) noted that there are different requirements and standards that are provided by bodies such as American Psychological Association to guide the conduct of action researchers. These standards are categorized in dimensions such as responsibility, intellectual ownership, and relationships between researchers, policy makers and other consumers of research outcomes. These standards also provide principles such social responsibility, respect for people’s rights and dignity, professional and scientific responsibility, integrity, and competence. Other Approaches to Research Design Evaluation is used in real life situations to assess the abilities, capacities, and skills for people from different lifestyles. Evaluation helps assess agencies and sectors to pinpoint the areas for which they need improvement and the areas in which they have excelled. Evaluation helps assess the effectiveness of policies, measures, programs among other things. Program evaluation assesses programs to help determine their value and generate recommendations to refine programs for better success. Maree and Van (2009) advice that program evaluation seeks to offer feedback that can help inform new designs for programs and make alteration on incumbent approaches. There are two ways of collecting data in program evaluation that are chosen based on the goal of the evaluation. The two ways of collecting data are summative and formative data collection. Formative evaluation helps in the implementation of new programs and changing existing ones. Summative evaluation describes the ways of implementing a program and identifies the possible effects of participants. The audience and rationale of an evaluation guide the choice of whether to use formative or summative evaluation in conducting both qualitative and quantitative research. Interviews, surveys, and standardized test scores help collect data in summative evaluation. To Kothari (2005), the outcomes of summative evaluation are handed to the clients after completion for the project or at the agreed time. The outcomes of formative evaluation are handed to clients throughout the period of evaluation. Presentations and memos are used in data collection of formative evaluation. Overall, program evaluation is structured in such a way that it establishes the effectiveness of a program and demonstrates whether it is viable to carry on the program or terminate it. Participant-oriented evaluation, expertise-oriented evaluation, goal-free evaluation, and objective-based approach are examples of program evaluation. Goal-free evaluation reckons that findings do not necessarily fulfil the set objectives or attain the set goals. Those engages in this evaluation emphasize the unintended benefits more than the intended outcomes. The limitation of this evaluation is the fact that the evaluation is funded to provide objective results. Objective-based approach uses statements that describe the purposes of the evaluation and defines clearly the information to be collected. Mill (2002) observes that in this approach, researchers emphasize the objectives of the evaluation downplaying the other benefits accruing from the outcomes. Participant-oriented has an advantage over other approaches as it incorporates the valuable contribution of participants in the evaluation. Participants are involved in developing instruments, collecting data, analysis of data, and reporting findings. In expertise-oriented evaluation emphasizes the criteria and expertise available in a given area. Action research refers to enquiry that seeks to collect information about the ways in which a given project affects its target groups and how the target groups respond to that project. Lodico and Vegtle (2010) postulate that social advocacy/liberator and pragmatic approaches provide basis for action research framework. Researchers involved in action research seek to establish the effects of specific projects on individuals; whether positive or negative. Action research has several advantages and disadvantages relative to other research designs. This research is favoured for its authority and persuasiveness. The research has practical and relevant implications for individuals and groups. Conclusion This paper has expounded on diverse key concepts important in research. The paper has explained the relationship between empiricism and quantitative research. It is worth noting that the quantitative research uses many principles of empiricism including observation and experience in collecting verifiable data. Scientific realism works with the assumption that there are things external to people but that influence their understanding and perception of the world. Quantitative researchers work with a logical positivism that upholds the belief that social facts are separate from the beliefs and feelings of individuals and they have their own reality. Positivism does not use assumptions but seeks to establish facts that appeal to the senses. Researchers use positivistic thinking to test theory, record and measure observations, and make conclusions on whether the measurements and observations made support theory. Post-positivists refute that observations and knowledge are not sufficient and cannot be trusted fully. They use triangulation to achieve objectivity of different observations and measurements. References Cargan, L. (2007). Doing social research. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. Creswell, J. (2009). The selection of a research design. In Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (pp. 1-49). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Hallowell, N., Lawton, J., & Gregory, S. (2005). Reflections on research: The realities of doing research in the social sciences. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Kothari, C. R. (2005). Research methodology: Methods & techniques. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Ltd. Lewin, C., & Somekh, B. (2005). Research methods in the social sciences. London: SAGE Publications. Lodico, M., Spaulding, D. T., & Voegtle, K. H. (2010). Methods in educational research: From theory to practice (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons. Maree, K., & Van, W. C. N. (2009). Head start in designing research proposals in the social sciences. Lansdowne, Cape Town: Juta. Mills, G. E., (2002). Action Research: A guide for the teacher researcher. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hill. Punch, Keith F. ( 2005). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: SAGE Publ. Weathington, B. L., Cunningham, C. J. L., & Pittenger, D. J. (2010). Research methods for the behavioral and social sciences. 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