Epistemology: a Comparison of the Concepts of Knowledge - Essay Example

 Epistemology: A Comparison of the Concepts of Knowledge Abstract Epistemology is concerned with studies of the knowledge theories. The document seeks to make a comparison of the concepts of knowledge as contributed by various philosophers in their past work. Plato is one of the earliest philosophers who used the Socrates, Theaetetus and Protagoras discussions to explain what knowledge was not. He held that knowledge required both permanence and certainty. However, the belief to be true had to be justified to be regarded as knowledge. Descartes claimed that sense perception was not reliable and proposed to acquire knowledge through objective reason. Locke opposed Descartes and upheld the importance of sensory perception to creation of ideas and experiences that led to formation of knowledge. Hume built on Locke’s work and both have common aspects. However, Hume rejects Locke’s concept of idea of the self and holds that there does not exist idea of causality. Berkeley argues based on immaterial world, where only the mind and what it perceives do exist. Keywords: Sense, Knowledge, Perception, Idea, Mind, Form, Certainty, Doubt. Reason, Object, Causality, Experiences, Plato’s theory of knowledge Plato builds on the theory of knowledge through his argument aimed at separating the concept of ‘forms.’ He was concerned with what knowledge was, and in the process clearly disputed the notion that people’s world of experiences is really what there all existed. Knowledge based on Plato’s concept is a notion of the forms and clearly raises his answer by criticizing Theaetetus, Protagoras and Socrates discussion of what knowledge is. One concept that Plato builds on concurs with Heraclutis’ concept that refutes appearances or perception being knowledge because of its imperfection, such that “the objects of perception are in a state of flux, they are always becoming and never are” (McMahon, N.d, p.2). Plato argues that particular things could be perceived to be or not something in subject based on what people perceives from time to time, or probably influenced by their differences. For example two people could perceive the beauty in an object differently, one could uphold its beauty, the other as not beautiful or perhaps gives an answer in relation to another which demonstrates uncertainty. According to Lacewing, Plato argues that “knowledge requires more permanence and certainty to uphold the truth and what is” (n.d, p.2). This prevents chances of relativism and transiently, which impairs establishment of knowledge/truth. Knowledge is taken to greater than an opinion, such that it is only of what holds to be real. Due to this, an individuals’ degree of belief is dependent on the perception of reality, which can be adopted to be true, but eventually becomes knowledge when there is sufficient evidence to justify it. Rene Descartes theory of knowledge Descartes was known for his major contribution in theory of knowledge through his skeptical arguments surrounding the issue of doubt. He believed that human senses had deceived them in the past and that information acquired through the sensing was not accurate. He made it an objective to ascertain that sense perception could not be relied, arguing that people should seek other ways to access knowledge and proposing for objective reasoning. This was contrary to the empiricists that upheld the importance of sense perception in production of knowledge. Descartes bases states that “there is conviction when there remains some reason which might lead us to doubt, but knowledge is conviction based on a reason so strong that it can never be shaken by any stronger reason” (“Descartes,” 2010, n.p). Rather than the senses, he urges that what he regards as the conviction or doubt in the human mind is central to distinguishing knowledge or a deception based on the reasons available. He not only doubted the reliability of sense experiences, but exposed how errors could occur simply by accepting dreams to be reality. He went further to insure of the sense in divine knowledge and “sought for what could be known for certain, holding that other truths could then be deduced from those known for certain” (Uzgaliz, 1996, n.p). Descartes introduced the concept of science based on reasoning; he argued that problems needed to be broken down into their simplest then solved through the process of objective reasoning to produce certainty to knowledge and science. The aim for objective reasoning was to avoid making judgment based on the unreliability of human senses and instead offer certain knowledge without doubts. He proposes that individuals withhold beliefs as long as the occurrence is dubitable and uncertain. There is a mutual discussion concerning certainty involvement in knowledge, when comparing Plato and Descartes theories. While certainty is a requirement in establishing knowledge (in Plato’s work), it is central in understanding the conviction Descartes expounds on and the contrast of doubt, which is critical his discussion of knowledge. John Locke’s theory of knowledge Locke places much emphasis on the content of the mind in developing his empirical theory of knowledge. He was a British empiricist whom among others held that sensory experiences were the origins of human thoughts and knowledge. Locke digs further into human development from birth and childhood to establish the development of knowledge through experiences. In the introduction of his concept, he asks what exists in the human mind before other factors from life experiences influence them. When a child is born, Locke claims that he/she is like a blank slate; only the potential to learn and process information exists and it’s where it relies on the experiences to write all of its concepts. Since humans have sensory organs they will react depending on the environment and will produce ideas that influence the mind. Due to this the ideas, thoughts, beliefs, attitudes and concepts, which are the concepts of the mind, occur (“John Locke,” 2002). Meaning as people grow old, the contents of their minds increases as they interact with more experiences. Essentially, the human hearing, seeing, tasting, feeling upon touch and smelling generate ideas of sensation, which are processed in the mind and reflected into other complex ideas. The mind has the capacity to develop simple ideas into complex ones through the experiences. An individual can hence be able to learn and acquire knowledge by making generalization after past experiences. Anyone can acquire knowledge through inner experiences by reflecting which enables self awareness, and the common outer experiences based on the sensory perception. Locke devotes to construct the theory of knowledge with clear comprehension that human understanding has limits; this lay open the probability of an error and he therefore settles on what can be referred as a fair certain knowledge that is developed from experiences. Since experiences lead to ideas that consequently form knowledge, it is reasonable to say that knowledge is based on experiences enabled by sensory perceptions. Locke contrasts with Descartes over what involves knowledge. Descartes is a rationalist who rejects the trust to human sense perception for its role in developing a state of doubt that cannot be relied upon. Locke on the other hand, argues that sense perception is vital for sensory experiences that lead to creation of ideas to acquire knowledge. For the latter, interaction of the ideas of sensation is focal in acquiring knowledge. No innate ideas: Locke has a different view from Plato and Descartes over innate ideas. He goes ahead to “refute the hypothesis that we are born with imprinted or innate ideas and knowledge” (Hewett, 2006). He is convinced there is no universal knowledge, and given the case it existed, the universal experiences would give a better explanation to acquiring it. Locke is tries to convince the world, opposing Plato’s concept of inherent knowledge. Descartes and Plato are convinced that humans tend to know how the world operates through innate knowledge, which is without the necessity of experiences. While Descartes approves of the deduction process in the construction of reliable knowledge, John Locke opposes the notion and proposes for induction as equally reliable (“John Locke” N.d, p.3). David Hume theory of knowledge He was another empiricist whose work builds on Locke’s theory. He shares with other empiricists the concept of knowledge emanating from experiences. Hume engaged in developing Locke’s theory by investigating into the Human nature. Hume’s argues that a means of abstract Meta physical speculations and common sense pronouncements of a religious belief or superstitions is not sufficient explanation of why human do believe what they do. He was highly interested with the humans’ mental contents in investigating into humans beliefs. He groups the various activities in the human mind into two groups: the impression (based on immediate experiences that involves actual sensation), and idea (dependent on original impressions as it develops through thinking) (“David Hume,”2002). It is through experiences that ideas are formed. Effectively humans can be able to link ideas to each other based on their mental abilities and form a complex idea. This is through resemblance, contiguity, and cause & effect that the ideas are linked, which without experiences, humans could not be aware of their association. Other than agreeing with Locke’s theory of ideas, he varied from his idea of self and goes ahead to question the rise its antecedent impression. Based on Hume’s work is no impression of the self as there lacks common sense assurance of individuals to be aware of themselves. Knowledge according to Hume can be achieved of just “two sort of things; the relation between ideas and matters of fact” (Lacewing, n.d, p.1). To access genuine information and comprehend how people learn from experiences is dependent on the belief people have on the matters of fact, which are non rational (Kemerling, 2011). Content of the mind: There is similarity in expounding their concept of knowledge through the mind’s content. While Locke generally talks about sensation perceptions and follows into sensation of ideas, Hume refers to mental activities and them moves to group them into impressions and ideas, where experiences are fundamentals of ideas that bring about knowledge. Linkage of ideas: Just like Locke, they both are of the notion that complex system of ideas and beliefs among others are combined in the human mind from simple ideas to arrive to substantial knowledge. His study of what causes humans to function and do what they do brought out the difference between him and Locke. For Locke, ideas were dependent on perceptions, but Hume established that the idea of causality for a determined effect could not be located in empiricism. This is in consideration that causality of an effect was impossible to perceive, as it only resulted from series of events. Hume contradicts with Plato and Descartes concept of innate ideas to support Locke, but also refutes Descartes concept of deduction through his study of causes and effects in relation to human nature. Berkley’s theory of knowledge Berkley’s takes an idealist stand to criticizing other empiricists work. Right from inception of his argument, he had established the uncertainty present in Locke’s representation of realism and worked to present a theory of knowledge that gave the absolute certainty of objects as they were in the world. he makes arguments against Locke’s stand holding that “a mental state could not possibly be a representation of an external object in Causation thesis, a mental state could not possibly resemble an external object” in resemblance thesis, and inseparability and variability arguments in opposition to Locke’s primary and secondary quality distinction (“Study Guide,” N.d, p. 1-2). He claimed that everything that exists is a perception in the mind; hence there did not occur material substance. Only the mind did exist, from which it could perceive physical objects as a combination of ideas created in the mind. Berkeley claims that “it is evident ... [that] the objects of human knowledge ... are either ideas actually imprinted on the senses, or else such as are perceived by attending to the ... operations of the mind... [Such as] memory and imagination” (“George,” n.d, p.15). His idealism is that objects are the experiences and sensation individuals’ forms in their minds; people have hence to construct mental images of what they perceive in their mind, which leads to a conclusion that perceptions are secondary. It follows that the ideas from the memories, senses and passion that exists in the mind assist in construction of knowledge. Independently existing material objects: It evident that Locke and Descartes believe in a material world. For them physical objects did exist independent of the conscious mind experiences. However, Berkeley refutes the assumption and claims that the only real substance that existed was the mind and the ideas of objects in the mind. Materialism: The idealist only believed in the existence of the mind and what it could perceive to creation of knowledge. Locke and Descartes supported the existence of both mind and matter as separate factors Reference List Descartes’ Epistemology. (2010, July20). Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-epistemology/ George Berkeley: The Principles of Human knowledge. (N.d). Retrieved from http://homepages.wmich.edu/~baldner/berkeley.pdf Hewett, C. J. M. (2006, November). John Locke’s Theory of Knowledge (An Essay Concerning Human Understanding). Retrieved from http://www.thegreatdebate.org.uk/LockeEpistem.html John Locke. (2002). Retrieved from http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl201/modules/Philosophers/Locke/locke.html John Locke: British Empiricism. (N.d). Retrieved from http://www.cabrillo.edu/~cclose/docs/Locke.pdf Kemerling, G. (2011, November 12). Hume: Empiricist Naturalism. Retrieved from http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/4t.htm Lacewing M. (N.d). Hume on Knowledge. Retrieved from http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/alevelphilosophy/data/A2/Hume/HumeKnowledge.pdf Lacewing, M. (N.d). Plato’s Theory of Forms. Retrieved from http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/alevelphilosophy/data/A2/Plato/PlatoTheoryForms.pdf McMahon, KD. (N.d). Philosophy: Plato-Theory of Knowledge. Retrieved from http://www.csun.edu/.../philosophy/.../Pl... Uzgalis. (1996). How to Acquire Knowledge. Retrieved from http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/know.html Read More