Antibiotics Resistance and Infectious Diseases - Essay Example

Antibiotics resistance and infectious diseases Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Name Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Course Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Lecturer Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 13th April, 2012. Introduction The term antibiotic refers to any substance that is used to decrease, kill or slow the bacteria existence. Often, the terms antibiotic and antibacterial are used interchangeably. The term antibacterial clearly exhibits the nature of the substance against bacteria existence with the prefix anti. Antibiotic substances are used to decrease bacteria (WHO 2012, Pp 1). They are therefore used to treat bacterial infection and some are used as vaccines. According to WHO 2012, Pp 1, medical research under the globalized world and chemical technology, antibiotics or antibacterial drugs have been improved to a range of diminishing various microorganisms including fungi and protozoa other than bacterial infections. Consequently, it has led to the generation of antimicrobial and antifungal which are substances used to kill or reduce bacterial and fungal infections which all together are referred to as microorganisms (Skold 2011, Pp 6). On the other hand, antibiotic resistance is the way by which microorganisms are able to resist or confer invulnerability to antibiotics. This is the case where bacterial infection resists from antibacterial or antibiotic drugs. Their growth is therefore not slowed and tends to remain in existence. This happens when bacterial infections develop genes for antibiotic resistance. Some bacteria are able to resist from a number of antibiotic drugs and thus referred to as multidrug resistant (MDR). Bacterial infections that have resistance genes are invulnerable to antibiotics therefore demanding for alternative methods of treatment. Thus, antibiotic resistance has brought about a problem in the treatment of such infections (Levy 2002, Pp 36). Infectious diseases also referred to as communicable diseases are those diseases that with contact transmit from one person to another. The contact transmission depends from one infectious disease. Most infectious diseases are bacteria prone. Remarkably, the bacteria determine the method of transmission with examples of physical contact, sexual contact and respiratory contact among others. Therefore, antibiotic being complemented by antimicrobial and antifungal drugs are used in the treatment of the infectious diseases. However, some microorganisms of the infectious diseases have proved to be antibiotic resistant. This has posed a global problem in their treatment calling for more research on alternative methods (WHO 2012, Pp 4). Antibiotic resistance has resulted to increased period of illness of an infectious disease, increased mortality rate of patients suffering from such a disease, increased spreading rate of the disease, increased periods of hospitalization of patients affecting the economy with the high cost associated (Lipsitch 2001, Pp 52). Antibiotic resistance vs. Infectious diseases treatment It is evident that treatment of infectious disease revolves around the ability of the bacterial infection to accept antibiotics. The higher the level of acceptance, the less the resistance and thus the easier to treat; the vice versa is also true (Dye 2002, Pp 12). Antibiotic resistances have resulted to infectious diseases that are resistance to such drugs to be declared as epidemics and pandemics when it is able to spread from one local area to another and finally to other countries. Some of the infectious diseases that have been declared as epidemics and pandemics are HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, measles, meningitis, hepatitis b, Ebola, cholera, hand, foot and mouth and swine flu among others (Gonzales et al 2001, Pp 17). Having spread to more than one country, the infectious diseases have been antibiotic resistance exhibiting the problem posed to the whole world at large in their treatment. Antibiotic resistance background and risk factors Medical research has proved that antibiotic resistance in human beings and animals develop due to some causal factors alongside risk factors. The risk and causal factors has been associated with the effect to decrease or kill the immunity in human and animals against infectious diseases and on the other hand strengthening the antibacterial resistance. One of the known factors of contributing to generation of bacterial genes that are resistant to antibiotic is the increased use of antibiotics and antimicrobial drugs in the human and animal body. The increased antibiotics use resulted into formation of complex antibacterial resistance. After a global research, it has been seen that antibiotic drugs has been exposed to exploitation. Antibiotics have been readily available over the counter and patients buy them for use without professional medical prescription. The microorganisms get used to the environment and the antibiotic environment is no longer subjective to killing or reducing growth to the microorganisms ( Levy 2002, Pp 19). According to Bonilla & Muniz 2009, inadequate prescription on antibiotics is also seen as a risk factor to the facilitation of resistance growth. This is the case where medical professionals do not precautions enough to give the patient the right dosage. The end result is the patient having an under dose which lead to more frequent bacterial infections or growth and of the former one which was not completely diminished. On the other hand, patients are also at fault. Apart from self medication that of over the counter antibiotic drugs, they also tend to effect an under dose when they don’t complete the prescribed antibiotic dose by the medical profession from the assumption that the illness is over before full dosage. This gives a spreading room to the bacterial infection to more microorganisms consequently falling ill often and an antibiotic prescription is made more frequently. On the other hand, the body microorganisms get used to the antibiotic environment thus developing the antibiotic resistance. Overdoses are neither safer, rather they expose the body microorganisms to more antibiotic environment falling into the adoption to the environment. When a body subjected to frequent antibiotic overdose is infected with an infectious disease, antibiotics are not effective for the treatment since the organisms are already used to the environment. Concurrently, the continued just facilitate the growth of the antibiotic resistance (Dye 2002, Pp 12). Antibiotic resistances have been found out to develop and spread quickly over a large mass of people in developing countries. This is because of the inadequate resources to handle such epidemics or pandemics spreading over a large mass. This leads to prospective predicament in treatment of such bacterial infectious diseases with increased antibiotic resistance. It is much more dangerous when the infectious disease spreads from one microorganism which is antibiotic resistance to another which was formerly not. The recipients eventually develop the resistant genes in the body microorganism which was not previously antibiotic resistant. This would have not been the case if the infection was from contact with another without the antibiotic resistance (Gonzales 2001, Pp 3-6). In regard to poor resources for bacterial handling, the government carries a share of the blame. It would be of essence that resources are presented when an infectious diseases is considered an epidemic even when it is not the emergence point. This prior preservation of resources or on time resources facilitates in decreasing the antibiotic resistance chances among the members of the state. In reference to the World Health Organization, 1999 Pp 7, lack of adequate infection control is consequently held as a risk factor in the antibiotic resistance development. The mutation concept is also held as another risk factor in the development, growth and spread of antibiotic resistance if not a causal factor. This depends from one infectious disease to another. The mutation and multiplication relation of microorganisms pose this treatment predicament. Naturally multiplying resistance organism are risk factors to the generic spread of the resistance. However, mutagenic antibiotics are able to counter the same though it may depend on mutation – multiplication ratio. When an antibiotic is not mutagenic, the higher the resistance risk rate. The vice versa is also true in that mutagenic antibiotics are able to counter the resistant genes. However, highly multiplying resistance microorganism spreads the risk as it becomes difficult for the counter of the antibiotic (Lodewijk 2011, Pp 12). This usually the case with antimalarial drugs which are usually not mutagenic hence a risk factor to antibiotic resistance (IDSA 1997, Pp 2-8). Mutation in microorganisms of the infectious disease becomes more dangerous in developing resistance rather than when in the antibiotic microorganisms. Diseases with high mutating bacterial infection are likely to develop a harder resistance to antibiotics. However, this is more of a risk factor rather than a causal factor. In the context of microorganisms and infectious disease growth, the factors are rather referred to as risk factors while some are causal factors. Most of the time, medical practitioners have rather a smaller ability or responsibility over emergence factors rather than the risky factors. In regard to over the counter self prescription, under dosage either from the medical practitioner or by the patient, exceeded overdose and continued increasing use of antibiotics can be generally referred to as risk factors (Spellberg 2012, Pp 4). Middle classed countries are more exposed to resistance development as compared to developing countries. Lack of exposure to antibiotics put the developing countries in a safer position in regard to antibiotics and antibiotics resistance. On the other hand, middle classed and the developed countries have higher exposure to antibiotics (Perlin & Drlica 2010, Pp 12). However, the resistance development depends on whether there are compliance restrictions or not. Developed countries have available information in regard to the antibiotics and moreover having legislation of compliance laws. On the other hand, the information is submitted the citizens through educational programs and the same to the medical practitioners. Middle classed countries on the other side have little knowledge thus little compliance with such regulations. This can be evidenced with over the counter availability of such antibiotic drugs and poor regulations in regard to their use. Hence they are associated with cases of overdose, under dose, home self prescription and the like (Paterson 2012, Pp 5-10). Antibiotic resistance and risk factors is inherent of both human and animal body microorganisms. However, research on animal statistics has not been settled unlike that of human. Antibiotics resistance has also developed in animals and the risk factors are the same as those on human being microorganism. For instance, increased antibiotics uses in animals have increased antibiotic resistance. Transmission of pathogens and antibiotic resistance microorganisms The scope on risk factors extends to other neglected factors. Water and sanitation infrastructure is one main risk factor both in emergence infection and in passed infection of resistant and non- resistant infections. Unclean water and poor sanitary environment are risk factors which have been evidenced in most of the already declared epidemics and pandemics. At most times, the unclean water and poor sanitation have a risk factor that spreads or links the infectious diseases even between human and animals. Often the factor is prone to becoming a causal factor or emergence factor for epidemics like cholera and the like (Paterson 2012, Pp 6). Animal product is also another infectious disease agent from animals to human not distinguishing between resistant and non-resistance bacterial infections. In regard to food and stuff, raw and undercooked food is very dangerous and is facilitators in the transmission of such bacteria. In reference to animal- human transmission, antibiotic resistant organisms can be controlled by complete cooking of animal products and evading such raw products. Heat has been recognized as one of the control mechanism for such transmission. Unless the infectious bacterial microorganisms in animal products are effectively cooked, then it will always end up to such kind of transmission (Harris 2002, Pp 2-19). Other known carries of pathogens are parasites. For instance, mosquitoes are known carriers of yellow fever alongside malaria. Foot and mouth also has parasites being carriers of the disease in animals. However, unsanitary conditions and unsafe water are other carriers in animals and in human. The ultimate determinant of the infectious disease agent is the type of contact. For instance, HIV/AIDS is a sexual transmitted disease but on the other hand, blood contact transmits the same. Most, respiratory infectious diseases are airborne while some are waterborne (CDC 2004, Pp 17). However, several researches have proved that medical practitioners have also been a frequent transmission agent of the infectious disease bacterial microorganisms. This is evidenced in events when they lack to take precautions that are expected of such professional. For instance, they neglect simple precautions such as washings their hands and changing of equipments when dealing with patients suffering from an epidemic (Paterson 2012, Pp 12). Eventually, they transmit the antibiotic resistance from one patient to another. This is the case especially when dealing with respiratory infectious diseases where their bacterial microorganisms are airborne. The nurses and doctors among other medical practitioners may skip a precaution at the risk or cost spreading the antibiotic resistant microorganism (Spellberg 2012, Pp 3-6). This leads to a major problem as patients develop microorganism multidrug resistance hence a medication scandal. Sample diseases with antibiotic microorganisms and effects to their treatment All diseases that have been declared pandemics and most that are known as epidemics are antibacterial organisms prone. As a matter of fact, the element of having a resistance behavior renders them their titles of being epidemics or pandemics. According to WHO 2012, tuberculosis is one of the existing pandemics that are heavily instilling predicaments in the medical profession due to their associated antibiotic microorganisms. As a matter of fact, tuberculosis microorganisms are multidrug resistant. The antibiotic resistance has affected the ability to treat the infectious disease due to its multidrug resistance (MDR-TB). According to the World Health Organization, MDR-TB cases increase with hundred of thousand cases every year. Moreover, the MDR-TB leaves other hundred thousand of people dead. In addition, tuberculosis has extensive drug resistance organisms which resist even the most known effective antibiotics. Unfortunately, the resistant genes are spreading among many countries with over 50 countries having reported a case of the same. HIV/AIDS is another infectious disease that has been declared a pandemic. Notably, the disease has resistant microorganism and high statistics are recorded in regard to their spreading and increased antibiotic resistance. However research has been globally set up and already has come up with antiretroviral drugs for the disease effect control (Perlin 2010 Pp 13). On the other hand, diarrhea has been in the past years controlled with some known effective antibiotics. However, increased resistances have been reported therefore showing how the antibiotic resistance affects the ability to treat such infectious diseases (IDSA 1997, Pp 5-9). The same case has happened to the treatment of gonorrhea. The sexually transmitted infectious disease has been reported to have caused death having resisted even the oral syrups that are considered effective due to its antibiotic resistance (WHO 1999, Pp 2). The HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, gonorrhea and diarrhea are just but examples of the many epidemics and pandemics that have antibiotic resistance and consequently leading to a serious global predicament in their treatment. Antibiotic resistance effects to the medical sector Antibiotics resistances in bacterial infections have posed a global challenge in the treatment of the infectious diseases. This is evidenced by the period increase in mortality rates of patients suffering from the epidemics. Since Alexander Fleming’s discovery of penicillin (antibiotic) and improved research with the globalization, antibiotics have been referred as the effective treatment for such bacteria prone diseases. However, there has been an increasing rate of antibiotics resistance for the treatment prescriptions (Lipsitch 2002, Pp 6). Increased antibiotic resistance has increased morbidity in hospitals with patients having prolonged hospitalization periods. The mutation in such bacteria makes things worse increased multiplications of such bacteria and some mutations causing drug resistance effects. Medical researches efforts are demoralized when alternative effective antibiotics are discovered only for the bacterial infections to develop multidrug resistance (Ramanan et al 2007, Pp 5). The predicament arises with the increased usage of antibiotic drugs either prescribed or home self prescription with the availability of over the counter antibiotic drugs. The mutation challenge goes ahead to be complemented by gene transfer mechanism of microorganisms. Formerly, anti-resistance bacteria and microorganisms are able to acquire resistance genes from those that are resistant. The gene transfer of resistance genes affects the ability to control infectious diseases (CDC 2004, Pp 17). For developing countries, antibiotic resistance results to financial stress with increased hospitalization and other funds for research which would have otherwise been used for treatment of the infectious diseases. This shows how antibiotics resistances being not only a medical challenge but also an economic challenge. Remarkably, antibiotics resistances have limited the chances available for antibiotics development in the medical research sector. Recommendations The following strategies as advised by the World Health Organizations will counter antibiotics resistance WHO 1999 Pp (6-16). 1. Legislation on antibiotic drugs Increased use of antibiotics being the main antibiotic facilitator to resistance development, firm legislations should be enacted by each government in regard to availability of antibiotics and restrictions be made regarding over the counter availability without a professional medical practitioner prescription. 2. Educational and Training programs to the public Public educational programs will supply medical information on the use of antibiotics in regard to their consequent effects. The education programs will also inform on effects of raw food or uncooked food. In addition, the public will be aware of how to prevent such disease transmission and restrain the risk factors to resistance development in the body microorganism. Animal human relation in regard to antibiotic resistance and transmission should also be addressed in the same. Under dose and overdose implications should also be inherent of the programs (SCENIHR 2009, Pg 42). On the other hand, training is required by drug sellers, providers and dealers. This is in regard to adherence of medical standards and requirements. 3. Government initiative in research programs Extensive research regarding the antibiotics and antibiotics need be done in order to improve or discover more effective antibiotics that overcome resistant microorganism. Government initiative is mostly needed in the finance sector since a lot is need. However, government assistance in educational programs is also needed. Medical facilities need be upgraded as time goes since there is a high increased rate in the antibiotic resistance development as opposed to countering medical facilities especially in developing countries. In regard to unclean water and poor sanitary infrastructure, the government should therefore take initiative to rectify the same as a precaution measure. (Laxminarayan 2012, Pp 78) 4. Global interaction Infectious diseases can only be eliminated through global interaction where research is done globally such that an emergence of bacterial infections will be effectively countered before it becomes an epidemic or a pandemic. 5. Adopting drug combination by the health practitioners Drug combinations have proved effectively in treatment of cancerous diseases and the like. Consequently, health practitioners with the help of research sectors should adopt the same in the fight against antibiotic resistance in the treatment of infectious diseases (Lipsitch 2001, Pp 23). 6. Individual initiative Individual initiative is the first step towards antibiotic resistance countering (Bellissimo-Rodrigues 2008, Pp 23). This is the case where each individual person should take precaution on the amount of antibiotics taken, completion of doses with no over dose, maintaining cleanliness and sanitary conditions, ensuring consumption of healthy animal products and fully cooked, using of nets as an antimalarial precaution among others. In reference to animals, human beings should ensure veterinary services for their animals. In addition, veterinary advice should be obtained in regard to usage of antibiotic feed on them and the precaution measures to prevent transmission of resistant microorganism among the animals and to human being. Conclusion Antibiotics alongside antimicrobial drugs have been used for ages as the most effective method to treat microorganism infections of bacteria, fungi among others. However, the increased continued use of antibiotics is notably a key factor in the development of antibiotic resistance thus affecting the ability to treat infectious diseases. The mortality rates have increased exceedingly and also the hospitalization periods increasing. On the other hand, antibiotic resistance has adverse economic effects. Increased hospitalization costs are experienced, increased need for research resources and treatment resources (WHO 1999, Pp 2-9). Though there has not been developed an alternative medication against antibiotic resistance, the WHO recommendations will render countering effects to the development, growth and existence of antibiotic resistance. The antibiotic resistance is a global predicament but the recommendations starting with individual intervention, government intervention and other precautions will eliminating the rigorous effects of antibiotic resistance in the treatment of infectious diseases. 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Spellberg B, Guidos R, Gilbert D, Bradley J, Boucher H, Scheld M, Bartlett J, Edwards J & the infectious disease society of America. The epidemic of Antibiotic-Resistant Infections: A call to Action for the Medical Community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America: Oxford Journals. WHO 1999, Removing Obstacle to Healthy Development; World Health Organization Report on Infectious Diseases: WHO. WHO, 2012, Antimicrobial Resistance, Fact sheet: No.194. Retrieved from, http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs194/en/ on 13th April, 2012. Read More