Can Learning Strategies be Taught - Essay Example

Running Head: Can Learning Strategies be Taught? Should They be Taught? Student’s Name: Instructor: Course Code and Name: Institution: Date Assignment is due: Paper Title: Theoretical Appreciation of the Suitability and Effects of Teaching Learning Strategies in Linguistic Contexts: Learning Strategies vs. Modern Second Language Acquisition Theories Thesis Statement A class of 20 year old ESP learners with Arabic as their L1 will need and benefit from learning strategies, especially having passed the critical language acquisition age of 12 while still with a low intermediate competence of English. Outline The paper is an argumentative piece that is arranged and sectioned specifically to deliver the argument home. To begin with, the paper has an introduction section, which highlights the format and the structure of the argument. This argument is structured as follows: a) Learning Strategies This section seeks to contextualize the semantic conception of the phrase ‘learning strategies’ in linguistic references. It is important to note that in this paper, learning strategies refers to the methods used by second or foreign language learners from Saudi Arabia to acquire competence in a target language such that they can comfortably learn in an ESP classroom context. b) Language Learning Strategies In this section, the paper begins a comprehensive literature review of the various language learning strategies developed and documented in post-1975 research findings. Various authors are reviewed on what they conceive as the good language learning strategies. This is important to the understanding of whether such language learning strategies are applicable to the classroom setting. c) Teaching Learning Strategies in Linguistic Contexts This section is also largely based on literature review of whether learning strategies are applicable in classroom settings and whether they are beneficial. My personal conviction is also contextualized on the relevant literature review in this section. A part of the section is also devoted to elaborating why learning strategies are important to learners based on the popular creative theory of language acquisition by Chomsky and later linguists. d) Theoretical Consensus on Learning Strategies Teaching in SLA Contexts In this section, the objective is to contextualize two available theories on applied linguistics to the argument of the foregoing sections. The section seeks to elaborate why modern theories, particularly Krashen’s monitor theory agrees with the necessity of teaching learning strategies. e) Conclusion The conclusion helps tie the loose ends of the argument together and restates the argument’s theme that language learning strategies are not only teachable but also necessary in language learning. Introduction This paper aims at discussing whether language learning strategies can and should be taught in a second or foreign language classroom. To begin with, the paper will highlight a conventionally accepted meaning and semantic application of the noun phrase ‘learning strategies’. After this, the paper will then review relevant literature on two issues, the good language learning strategies and an overview the second language learning strategies. Afterwhich, the paper will then discuss the practical situations in which teaching learning strategies in linguistic contexts have worked as backed by scientifically proven Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theories. A few studies about teaching learning strategies based on available literature findings are then highlighted and discussed in terms of their implication. The conclusion will tie together the general theme of the paper. The theme here is to underscore available leaning strategies, how these strategies have faired when taught in linguistic contexts and finally the theoretical consensus behind their ability to amplify second or foreign language acquisition success. The nature of the process of acquiring a language as contemporary research indicates shows that learning strategies can help increase a student’s ability to learn and use the language better, but not to acquire it. That is why the learning must not be over-emphasized at the expense of language acquisition processes (McDonough, 1995). Learning Strategies The notion of learning strategies has been defined a variety of ways by assorted linguistic literature. Conventionally, learning strategies have been called the language learners’ tool kit that enables an active, purposeful, conscious and attentive process of learning. The tool kit charts the way towards better language proficiency, self-regulation and autonomy. Oxford, (2002: 372) defines language learning strategies as the conscious and or the semiconscious behaviors and thoughts that learners use to improve their understanding and knowledge of a target language. Rubin (1975:112) offered the characteristics of learning strategies as to refer to certain actions, behaviors and techniques associated to learning a new language systematically. According to Rubin, strategies are a response to learning needs. This covers the support to learning directly and or indirectly (Rubin, 1975). Modern learning strategies contribute to a learner’s achievement of communicative competence in L2 by allowing learners to be self-directed and even autonomous directed in that process. Learning strategies must be differentiated from communication strategies that only seek to amplify the ability of a learner’s ability to use language while learning strategies encompass acquisition of knowledge of and about the language ranging from grammar rules to phonetic performance (Chamot, 1987). We have several types of learning strategies. Some of these include cognitive strategies (using the active mind to make connections, re-order, guess and test hypothesis of the new language). There are also the mnemonic strategies (linking new items to what is already known) , meta-cognitive strategies (covering personal strategies of acquiring knowledge, personal learning styles, personal preferences etc) and finally the compensatory strategies (making up for what is not known by circumlocution, flapping, pointing, using synonyms etc). Recent studies have also identified affective learning strategies (personal appreciation of strengths and weaknesses) and social strategies (learning from and with others by asking for help etc). Language Learning Strategies Rubin (1975), Stern (1975) and Naiman (1978) have all identified what can be referred to as good language learning strategies, or as strategies of successful language learning. Indeed, the three scholars highlighted above, Rubin, Stern and Naiman, have all provided a list of learning strategies that have been used in controlled research and resulted to successful language learning. Rubin (1975) on his part suggests that when such language learning strategies are used on learners, the learners demonstrate particular characteristics such as being accurate guessers, having a persevering determination to communicate, being uninhibited by mistakes during learning and focusing on the language forms in search of meaningful patterns such as grammatical rules. On the other hand, Stern (1975: 316) also quoted in (McDonough, 1995), concludes his elaboration by suggesting ten language learning strategies for SL learners to aid in the acquisition of L2 competence. The first is the personal language learning style, then an active approach to all learning tasks and thirdly an outgoing and tolerant approach towards the target language complemented by empathy of target language speakers. The fourth is a technical and systematic approach that aide in tackling the target language systematically i.e. phonologically, morphologically, semantically etc. Stern gives the fifth strategy planning and experimentation of the learning process that helps segment the target language to an ordered, understandable system and then revising that system progressively i.e. Studying morphs, then morphemes, words, phrases, clauses and finally sentences of the target language. The sixth language learning strategy is a progressive search for meaning of phenomena in the target language. Stern then gives the seventh language learning strategy as a willingness to practice what is learnt, the eighth as a willingness to communicate using the target language in real life contexts and the ninth as developing a self-monitoring sensitivity while using that target language. Finally, Stern’s tenth learning strategy is a continuous development of the target language as a distinct reference system a user can think in. The above scholars used studies that only led to conception of language learning strategies that were more or less the personal characteristics of learners. They omitted the relevant role of a learner’s mental processes during the learning process. In later studies however, O’Malley et al. (1985) overcame this omission of earlier scholars when he redefined language learning strategies to include cognitive aspects of the plans and operations used by learners to facilitate acquisition, analysis, storage, relation, retrieval and use of target language input to formulate output. Chamot (1987) expands that definition by asserting that language learning strategies are the specific activities a learner engages in to make target learning easier, faster, enjoyable, effective, self-directed and transferable to novel contexts. At this point, it is worth to note that in the last two decades O’Malley and Chamot (1996) carried out extensive research of language learning strategies and finally conceived a general L2 learning model based on some cognitive psychology insights. They thus summed up the learning strategies into three types namely cognitive language learning strategies, meta-cognitive language learning strategies and social language learning strategies. These three are considered by this paper as the most comprehensive and concise theorems to be considered in such as discussion as are the topic of this paper. The scholars identified cognitive strategies as to involve the conscious acts a learner assumes to tackle the target language with the mental involvement such as taking notes, resourcing from dictionaries and thesaurus and elaboration of new concepts using what is already known. The meta-cognitive language learning strategies then refer to the plans and thoughts about the learning process including monitoring speech or writings and evaluating their correctness. Finally in social strategies, the scholars referred to the process of learning through interacting with other learners and teachers or with proficient target language speakers. Teaching Learning Strategies in Linguistic Contexts The literature appreciation highlighted above on learning strategies is however deliberately skewed to include only modern research. The paper deliberately ignores learning strategies adopted in pre-1975 language learning strategies. This is because the traditional concepts of language learning as conceived by behaviorists who believed in practice as the best way to improve language competence, the object of identifying language learning strategies was to teach these successful strategies to language learners as aides to the learning process (Oxford, 1990). There is a general consensus therefore that many behavioral theorists believed that learning strategies can be taught and further, should be taught to learners as an aid of the learning process. In fact, the central distinction between the behavioral and modern creative theorists like Chomsky is that the behaviorists believed that teaching and practice was the only way a language could be acquired (Van Patten & Williams, 2008). That meant that the students needed language learning strategies taught to them continuously and repetitively until they learnt how to repeat the same input given by their instructors in their output (Van Patten & Williams, 2008). Therefore, in considering modern theoretical consensus of the necessity and appropriateness of teaching language learning strategies, the essay has not excluded the traditional theorists but rather concentrated on what contemporary linguistic research has elaborated on. Every language teacher, especially in second and foreign language classrooms, has a singular mandate in their job description (Oxford, 1990). That is to help the language students learn the target language, effectively, faster and efficiently until they approximate native competence of the target language to the highest level possible. To achieve these ends the teachers adopt a variety of means and these means are what linguists refer to as the language learning strategies. A teacher can use combinations several strategies while teaching a language. Teaching language presupposes that the teacher will teach some learning strategies that will aide a student in acquiring the target language. The question being addressed by this paper is whether teaching language learning strategies is possible and whether it should be practiced. This far, the arguments have irrefutably disclosed that not only are learning strategies teachable and necessary, but also that the strategies are the only reason students go to classrooms and teachers are employed. There are numerous examples of persons who learnt a new language without ever attending a class where learning strategies are taught. Most non-native Arabic speakers for instance find learning Arabic and using it very easy since it is mandatory to many Muslim contexts. If a British national and a native speaker of English moves to Saudi Arabia and converts to Islam, he or she will find it easy to learn Arabic not because the Arabic language is easy but because it is a compulsory language to the linguistic context he or she has been adopted to. Henmer-Stanchina (1982) cited in McDonough (2002) conquers that learning a new language can occur by mere exposure to a communicative context using that language. Nonetheless, modern linguists, language educators and EFL researchers have noted that students acquire target language competence faster and more efficiently when exposed to a classroom setting where learning strategies are taught than when they only have communicative contexts to fall back to. I believe that teaching language learning strategies is possible and vital. A typical ESP classroom with low intermediate level Saudi Arabian university students of an average age of 20 years old will rely on language learning strategies taught in a classroom to aide their acquisition process towards approximating target language proficiency. As McDonough notes, most migrants and foreign students who are faced with a new language are first intimidated and then confused by the new language to the extent that it takes a lot of time for them to start registering input, processing it and then attempting output. For students, being in the language environment where they can gain communicative competence can never be sufficient to successfully withstand the demands of the same language when tested in a mainstream curriculum. Besides communicative competence, such students also require academic competence used in higher education textbooks and used in the classroom. ESP learners with Arabic as their L1 and a low intermediate competence of English require help in attaining the competence demanded in the use of English for specific purposes such as in translating texts. A while back, I was an English language teacher at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, teaching a two-hour weekly Translation course for the Islamic Studies Department. My experience was that these students required a higher competence of the language than most other learners do, simply because their acquired competence was not just for communication but also to be applied in rigorous translation of Religious English Essays into Arabic. Besides improving their language use abilities in writing, speaking and listening; the course offered language learning strategies as part of the syllabus so as to help them acquire English language skills that could then be used in translation. As will be elaborated in the section that follows, it is however not enough to teach a student how to acquire language since individual differences make it impossible for them to use or learn from same learning strategies taught in the classroom. That means that individual based and developed learning strategies will work better than having a universal set of learning strategies to be taught in the course or any language learning process. In the literature review of language learning strategies, the essay covered a scope limited only to the post-1975 research. This is because since late 1970’s, linguists attention shifted from language learning and teaching (behavioral perceptions of language teaching methods) to the learner’s characteristics and the learning strategies. The reason for this shift is the realization that no teacher can effectively teach language to a learner by repeating a production of all phonemes, morphs and syntactic combinations in a language. To use Chomsky’s words (1995: 54), “language is a finite set/system of rules that help create an infinite set of grammatically correct constructions… ” and it will take centuries to teach half of these infinite systems in their assorted transformations. What is however possible is to teach students the methods of extracting the finite rules from the available input and then methods of using these acquired rules to form correct novel structures of the target language, some of which the learners have never heard in the input. The statement above means that it is impossible to teach language but it is possible to teach strategies of learning language. The strategies here refer to the methods of extracting rules and methods of using the rules to construct new outputs. Therefore, to answer the question of the paper, teaching strategies is indeed possible and beneficial even though not mandatory since some people do learn language exclusively from communicative contexts as exemplified above. Teaching the strategies is essential since it helps language learners to easily and systematically solve their language learning problems, fast, effectively and in a permanent manner because they understand the logic behind the correctness of grammatical forms for instance sentences. An example is called for here. Low intermediate level Saudi Arabian university students of an average age of 20 years old when in an ESP classroom have an advantage because of language learning strategies taught then in the classroom. Most Arabic native speakers when they learn language in communicative contexts carry over the Arabic language feature of inserting a double subject in appositive position, by providing the objective pronoun immediately after the subject. I.e. in a sentence {David gave me a pen}, a native Arabic speaker learning second language in communicative contexts will most probably say {David he give me a pen}. Dulay, Burt and Krashen in (Tudor, 2002) found out that if you informed such a speaker that the structure was ungrammatical, he or she might avoid it in future but still make similar mistakes in other contexts such as {That color, it is beautiful}. The plausible explanation offered here is that the learner only avoids the mistake by behavior. But if the same learner was given a thorough strategy to analyze correct English structures, he or she will learn why the correct sentence varies with the ungrammatical one, thus learning a rule that is applicable to all other sentence structures. As such, researchers in language teaching always strongly recommend that the learning strategies are important in aiding learners to gain target language proficiency faster and more permanently. Theoretical Consensus on Learning Strategies Teaching in SLA Contexts The goal of this paper remains to argue the case of the possibility and the need for teaching language learning strategies. In this section, the essay reviews two theoretical applications of applied linguistics in second language learning to further elaborate on the argument. One such theory has been used to drive home the point in the above section, where Chomsky’s notion of generativist grammar helps illustrate why teaching learning strategies (such as how to derive rules from correct input) helps a student to permanently learn the language (Van Patten & Williams, 2008). Similarly and for the same intent, let us now review the famous monitor theory by Krashen, widely accepted as a pillar of second language learning (Tudor, 2002). The theory is broken into five segments but for the purposes of this paper we will analyze the implications of two segments namely Acquisition-Learning distinction and monitor. The acquisition-learning distinction hypotheses emphasizes that these two are independent systems of language competence where 'the permanently acquired system' is the acquisition and the ‘learned system' the learning. The acquisition is a product of a learner’s subconscious process similar to that of children in first language acquisition and this is only facilitated by meaningful interaction with the target language in a natural communicative act. The learning accrues from formal instruction and thus results to a conscious knowledge 'about' the target language such as knowledge of the grammar rules. Krashen is emphatic that learning not as important as the acquisition since "Language competence doesn’t require extensive accumulation of conscious grammatical rules and tedious drill." This might seem to negate the need for learning strategies learning. However, the truth is that the learning strategies are not just to facilitate knowledge of rules but also to guide the students on how to engage in communicative contexts. As Krashen then says, there are acquisition methods that allow “meaningful interaction in a target language though natural communication and in which learners are not concerned about the grammatical form of utterances but the messages conveyed and understanding achieved". And this is where the monitor hypothesis becomes important to the argument. Krashen embodies his views in this second hypothesis by saying that proper performance of a target language by a learner occurs when the learner screens the acquired system on the learned system before production. This means that without a learned system, the learner might ignorantly produce target language output that is incorrect and unknown to be incorrect. The Arabic speaker from Saudi Arabia used above can elaborate on this. If he or she has not acquired the rules that make his or her production {David, he gave me a pen} incorrect, he keeps on repeating the error in his grammar despite admonitions against such performance. However, when the same learner is given a method/strategy to learn the language, every time he is about to perform a structure, he will screen in it on the rule learnt and omit the pronoun. Without refute therefore, teaching learning strategies is not just possible but also essential. Teaching language learning strategies is the only assurance that the learner will consolidate an acquired system and them rigorously monitor this on the learned system thus approximating native competence of the target language. There have been many studies done to confirm these convictions and two of them are exemplified hereunder. Chamot & Kupper (1989) in (Tudor, 2002) observes as teachers taught high school LLS students how to use selective attention, inferencing in listening, cooperation strategies of speaking and self-evaluation. After a while, they tested improvement on the students and found that a teacher’s interest, instructional techniques, clarity and ability to motivate the students to use the learning strategies were determining factors in successful learning. More recently, a study on the impact of teaching learning strategies to 55 EFL students of the University of Minnesota as documented in Chen (1996) and cited in McDonough (2002), the experimental group taught learning strategies highly outperformed those who did not receive explicit instruction on learning strategies to use. Conclusion The above discussion has centered on establishing whether learning strategies can be taught and whether they should be taught. The paper illustrated why learning strategies can be taught basically as directives and pointers to aides a learners discovery of the language. The fact that we have language teachers and language schools means that language learners can be taught how to acquire target language competence. Modern linguists led by generativists like Chomsky believe that a teacher cannot teach language parse, but can only teach language learning strategies that can be used by students to learn the language themselves, or in Chomsky’s words, “discover patterns in the language that can be applied in novel contexts”. Further, the paper went ahead to exemplify learning strategies available and as differentiated by post-1975 research. The applicability of these strategies in the classroom setting helped restate that indeed the learning strategies should be taught. To seal off the argument, three theories of applied linguistics specifically in second language acquisition have been used to show why it is important to teach learning strategies as the only way to facilitate, fast, permanent and efficient competence acquisition. Lastly, two research studies of recent times have been highlighted and their conclusions cited to illustrate the need and the benefits of teaching learning strategies. Conclusively therefore, a class of 20 year old ESP learners with Arabic as their L1 will need and benefit from learning strategies, especially having passed the critical language acquisition age of 12 while still with a low intermediate competence of English Appendix Abbreviated Linguistic Terms (arranged alphabetically) EFL - English as a foreign language ESL - English as a second language FLA - First language acquisition FLL – Foreign language learning FLT - Foreign language teaching L1 – First language L2 - Second language LLS - Language learning strategy LS - Learning strategy SLA – Second language acquisition SLT - Second language teaching References Chamot A. U. (1987). Language Development through Content Mass. Addison: Wesley. Chomsky, N. 1995: The minimalist program. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (McDonough S. (1995). Strategy and Skill in Learning a Foreign Language. London : Arnold. McDonough, S. 2002. Applied Linguistics in Language Education. New York: Arnold. O’Malley M. & Chamot U. (ed) (1996). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: CUP. Oxford R.(1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. Boston: NewBury. Rubin J. (1975). What the “Good Language Learner” Can Teach Us. TESOL (9). pp. 41-51 Rubin, J. (ed) (1987). Learner Strategies in Language Learning. London: Prentice Hall. pp 85 -102. Tudor, I. 2002. The Dynamics of the Language Classroom. Cambridge University Press. VanPatten, B. & Williams, J. (2008). Introduction: the nature of theories. In VanPattern, B. &  Williams, J. (eds) Theories in second language acquisition. New York: Routledge, pp.1-16.  Read More