Parenting and child development - Essay Example

Parenting and child development Parenting and child development in Africa and Middle East Nsamenang, A. B. & Lamb, M. E. (1995). The force of beliefs: How the parental values of the Nso of Northwest Cameroon shape children’s progress toward adult models. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 16, 613-627. Questions: a) Why is it important to research parental beliefs and socialization values in diverse cultures? b) How are parental beliefs linked to general culture values? Main idea: There are intracultural variations in the socialization values of Nso parents, depending on gender, generation, place of residence, religion and education, although they share their intention of influencing their children toward adult models. Impression/limitation part: Parental values and attitudes foreshadow parental goals and programs, with children taking on parental values depending on the structure of the society. Nso parental values, particularly parental expectations and reinforcement, promote the anticipatory socialization and guided participation of children in the routine work of the family and community (Nsamenang & Lamb, 1995, p. 624) This study pointed out that parental values critically influence children’s development. Nso parents help children to accept and understand their identity and behavior as future adults. This situation engages children in anticipatory socialization, that is, peer-group activities related to the knowledge and practices needed for the adult world. Child-to-child interactions are more important than parents-to-child interactions. 2.- Cole, C. F., Arafat, C., Tidhar, C., Tafesh, W. Z., Fox, N. A., Killen, M., et al. (2003). The educational impact of Rechov Sumsum/Shara’a Simsim: A Sesame Street television series to promote respect and understanding among children living in Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27 (5), 409-422. Questions: a) How could the media influence children’s evaluations about other cultures? b) What is the importance of television programs with educational goals? Main idea: Media can influence children’s attitudes and knowledge about a different culture, as it was demonstrated in the study of the educational impact of the television series Rechov Sumsum/Shara’a Simsim for Israeli and Palestinian children. Impression/limitation part: The intensity and harshness of the descriptors used by the Palestinian children and to a lesser extent by the Israeli-Jewish children underscore the presence of ethnic stereotyping as young as 4 years of age. It emphasizes as well that efforts to reduce ethnic stereotyping must begin at an early age (Cole et al., 2003, p. 420). The test applied to Israeli and Palestinian children, before the broadcasting of Rechov Sumsum/Shara’a Simsim, indicated that very young children have negative stereotypes about the other culture. This is an alarming situation, because it enables us to predict a never-ending cycle of conflicts between cultures. The initiative of the television series Rechov Sumsum/Shara’a Simsim was very important, because it targeted small children, and it favored positive children’s judgments about peer interactions with children from different cultures. Parenting and child development in Asia and the Pacific 1.- Rao, N., McHale, J. P. & Pearson, E. (2003). Links between socialization goals and child-rearing practices in Chinese and Indian mothers. Infant and Child Development, 12, 475-492. Questions: a) Rao, McHale & Pearson (2003) stated that beliefs about the importance of nature and nurture in child development affect socialization goals and, by extension, child-rearing practices. Chinese mothers believe that individual differences can be overcome by means of effort, whereas Indian mothers consider that there are predetermined tendencies which limit the individual development. Therefore, training and authoritative parenting practices are used in order to encourage children to achieve determined socialization goals. In our society, which beliefs are affecting socialization goals? b) Rao, McHale & Pearson (2003) acknowledged the importance of adopting an articulated conceptual position when studying parenting within cultural contexts (p. 478). Their research is based on a socio-cultural approach with a culture-comparative strategy. When considering our society, which theoretical approaches can be used to investigate the relationship amongst socialization goals and child-rearing practices? Main idea: The relationship between socialization goals and child-rearing practices was demonstrated by means of a study on the association of filial piety and socioemotional development to authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles, although cultures differ in their goals and practices. Impression/limitation part: There are many limitations to this study. Our sample was a relatively small one and was limited to urban, more advantaged members of society. Although higher SES parents in both China and India report using more democratic practices than lower SES parents (Jing and Wan, 1997; Saraswathi and Pai, 1997), we suspect that goals (which represent broad cultural values) may be less affected by social class than are practices. Further research is needed to determine whether these findings are generalizable to less advantaged urban populations and to rural samples (Rao, McHale & Pearson, 2003). This research considered a small sample of Chinese and Indian mothers, but the topic deserves a broader and deeper investigation on socialization goals and child-rearing practices, which could apply other methodological tools and confirm the results obtained by the authors. 2.- Barlow, K. (2004). Critiquing the “good enough” mother: A perspective based on the Murik of Papua New Guinea. Ethos, 32 (4), 514-537. Questions: a) According to Barlow (2004), Western cultural concepts have produced ethnocentric biases in psychological theories. However, the case of Murik women from Papua New Guinea contrasts with the view of mothering proposed by those theories. How do cultural variations in mothering challenge psychological theories on personal development? b) Barlow (2004) argued that understanding mothering in psychological and cultural terms is essential in order to understand women’s and children’s lives (p. 516). In this context, what is the importance of studying mothering in different cultures? Main idea: The ethnocentric concept of mothering that underlies most Western psychological theories has to be revised in order to take account of cultural variations in mothering. Murik society provides an example of a different view of mothering, which demonstrates the necessity of developing culturally sensitive psychological theories. Impression/limitation part: A broader view of mothering that integrates psychological and cultural insights is needed. Such a perspective expands our view of mothering in Western society and creates a basis for more fully understanding women’s lives in any society (Barlow, 2004, p. 515). This idea reflects the purpose of the article. The author revised the limitations of psychological theories, such as Freud’s, which lead to emphasize the concept of a domestic and exclusive mother, dependent on the man. These theories did not consider a cultural component in mothering, and ignore the role of mothers in non-Western societies. Therefore, a cultural perspective in mothering would challenge the current view of mother’s role in Western society, and would have positive implications for understanding gender and self-development within anthropology and psychology. 3.- Cole, P., Tamang, B. L. & Shrestha, S. (2006). Cultural variations in the socialization of young children’s anger and shame. Child Development, 77, 1237-1251. Questions: a) Cole, Tamang & Shrestha (2006) pointed out that it is important to consider cultural factors when approaching the socialization of children’s emotions. Why does culture influence emotional development? b) Cole, Tamang & Shrestha (2006) studied Tamang and Brahman children from Nepal, and suggested that children acquire their ideas about how they should feel and act from their early socialization experiences. Despite their cultural differences, Tamang and Brahmans are collectivist societies. How do Western children acquire their ideas about their reactions and behaviors? Main idea: Cultural differences are influential in the socialization of children’s emotions. The adult caregivers respond differently to children’s emotion according to their expectations on children’s competence and behavior, which are determined by ethnicity. Impression/limitation part: In addition to informing the field of child development about rarely studied groups, our findings have implications for the study of emotional development and the socialization of emotion. The findings clearly suggest that culture seeps into the ordinary day-to-day interaction of children and their caregivers (Cole, Tamang & Shrestha, 2006, p. 1250). This study links children’s emotional development with socialization. It has importance for many disciplines related to this subject, and it enables us to reflect about the cultural influence on the interaction between children and their caregivers. 4.- Li, J. (2004). Learning as a task or a virtue: U.S. and Chinese preschoolers explain learning. Developmental Psychology, 40 (4), 595-605. Questions: a) Li (2004) stated that beliefs about learning are crucial in shaping children’s thoughts, approaches and feelings about learning. How do children develop beliefs about learning across different cultures? b) The distinction between learning as a task (for U.S. learners) and learning as a virtue (for Chinese) demonstrates that culture influences the concept of learning. What is the role of culture in children’s learning? Main idea: This study on beliefs about learning among European American and Chinese preschoolers demonstrated that cultural concepts on learning are internalized before formal schooling. Impression/limitation part: Even though all children are endowed with capacities to learn, and all cultures engage children in learning, children’s understanding of the learning process may differ substantially from culture to culture, which may have important implications for teaching and learning. These understandings may be essential in explaining children’s motivation for learning, their learning behavior, and the ultimate outcomes of learning across cultures (Li, 2004, p. 603). This paper described the different cultural values related to learning in Western and Chinese traditions. European American children view the learning process as task to be performed by the learner, whereas Chinese children consider learning as a process of self-perfection by the development and application of learning virtues, such as diligence, persistence and concentration. This substantial difference between cultures has to be considered in the interdisciplinary field related to teaching and learning, and it is relevant in this era of globalization, in which people go to study and work to places dominated by different cultures. Read More