Genetically Modified Organisms - Research Paper Example

? Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are one of science’s innovations that have received unending criticism. However, these organisms pose the most promising solutions to the persistent threat of food insecurity. There are multiple issues surrounding the safety and reliability of genetically modified organisms in the future. Whereas there are multiple myths surrounding genetic modifications, research can provide highlights on the truths surrounding GMOs and provide knowledge on the production of these organisms. This paper will focus on discussing several issues concerning genetically modified organisms. In the first section, the paper will define these organisms and describe the process of their production. In addition, the paper will pay attention to the myths and truths surrounding GMOs, and outline the areas of application. All the organisms have a definitive genetic makeup that determines the traits that they exhibit. Since the genotype determines all the phenotypic characteristics of organism, any change in the genetic set up translates to a change in the phenotype. This forms the basis of the construction of genetically modified organisms. After the success of several fundamental studies that sought to analyze the genetic constitution of organisms, science moved to a different level (Tyagi, 2009). After scientists succeeded in sequencing several genomes, this success served as a benchmark in understanding the entire genetic constitution in an organism. Moreover, the discovery of restriction enzymes played a critical role in making gene recombination a possibility. The application of the new knowledge helped scientists develop techniques of altering the genotype of an organism (U.S. Department of Energy Genome Program, 2012). Genetically modified organisms are organisms whose genetic constitution has been altered the introduction of gene from a different species, conferring a new trait to the organism. The production of genetically modified organism focuses on exploiting the positive side of the modification process. Therefore, scientists only seek to induce genetic changes that confer positive qualities such as resistance to diseases and pests. Currently, there are genetically modified organisms from both the plant and animal families (Philips, 2008). The initial genetically modified organisms had only one gene inserted into their genomes and exhibited only one additional quality that was not evident in the wild types. However, the recent advances in biotechnology have presented new realms of inserting several genes into the genome of an organism. Scientists introduced genetically modified organisms as way of scientifically introducing a desirable trait to an organism (Antoniou, Robinson, & Fagan, 2012). Prior to the development of modifying organisms by introducing a new gene, scientists had tried artificial breeding to replace the rather random natural selection. This confirms that science is directly linked with GM. Natural selection denotes the natural breeding that occurs without the influence of the choice of mates by humans. In this case, breeding within species occurs only under the control of the law of inheritance as described by Mendel. According to Mendel, the offspring inherits one of each pair of characters that are different in the parent’s genotype (Kuldell, 2005). However, for each gene, one allele is dominant, explaining the law of dominance as explained further by Mendel. Mendel provided laws that served to explain the inheritance of qualities through the dominant-recessive principles. Mendel’s work formed a strong foundation for understanding genetics. Other geneticists later described co dominance and incomplete dominance; patterns that are important have proved to be of great significance in understanding the inheritance of some critical traits. Patterns of inheritance that surround natural selection often confer undesirable traits. Therefore, artificial selection came into place to exert a level of control in the breeding process. Artificial breeding involves the selection of mates for animals or controlled breeding in plants in a bid to ensure production of hybrid offspring that presents the most desirable qualities. Artificial breeding has proved useful in the production of hybrids both in plants and animals (Kuldell, 2005). Genetic modification of organisms is an avenue of introducing organisms that exhibit desirable qualities that foster their survival. A clear illustration is in the case of plants being prone to diseases and pests necessitating the need for the development of a breed of the plant that can resist such diseases and pests. With increased understanding of the genome of such a plant, scientists realized that there was the possibility of introducing gene into the genome, making the plant resistant to the pest or disease. Genetically modifying organisms brought about a new realm of solutions to breeders (Kuldell, 2005). Genetic engineering denotes the process of selection and insertion of the gene of interest into the target organism (Philips, 2008). The process occurs in the laboratory and a good understanding of the genome of the target organism is usually critical. The distinct difference between artificial breeding and genetic engineering is the fact that gene tic engineering involves transfer of genes between two unrelated species while artificial selection focuses on getting the hybrids from individuals exhibiting the superlative status of any trait. To illustrate, it is possible to insert a bacterial genome into a plant genome as long as it confers the desired quality to the genome. Therefore, selection of the gene of interest is a rigorous process that analyzes the exact sequence of the gene. Understanding of the regions involved actively in coding and the flagging non-coding sequences of the gene of interest, and analyzing its regulatory mechanism as well as confirming whether the gene codes for the desired trait is significant. Analyzing the coding and flagging sequences of the gene determines the restriction enzymes that will come into use in the recombination process (Philips, 2008). Restriction enzymes are useful in cleaving the gene in order to make recombination possible. Understanding the regulatory mechanisms is critical because the gene must be transferred alongside the regulatory sequences. After selection of the gene that codes for the desired trait, scientists embark on the choice of an effective vector that can introduce the gene of interest into the target organism (Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, 2013). Usually, vectors are DNA molecules whose sequences have been analyzed and that present the possibility of ligation of the selected gene into its genome. An effective vector must have a considerably short DNA sequence and exhibiting capacity to replicate after introduction into the target organism. The vector must also possess multiple single cut sites that facilitate the action of restriction enzymes, and must exhibit ease of isolation. A quality vector must have a high level of stability since these increases the chances of the foreign gene being expressed. In the transformation process, scientists require the expression vectors to have a designated marker that helps in the selection of the cells that have successfully been transformed. The transformation process is a rigorous one and the creation of a single genetically modified organism requires a lot of time and array of experimental processes. After analyzing the bases of the gene of interest, scientists embark on the synthesis of multiple copies of the gene for use in the transformation process. The initial step in the DNA recombinant technology involves cutting of the gene of interest and its isolation. The second critical step involves the introduction of the gene of interest to the vector. Successful insertion of the gene of interest into the vector produces a transformed vector. Through the use of restriction enzymes, insertion of the gene of interest into the DNA molecule of the vector occurs (Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, 2013). After insertion of the gene of interest into the vector, there is nee for amplification of the gene through the powerful process of polymerase chain reaction that produces millions of copies of the gene (Sandhu, 2010). The amplification process is critical, and gel electrophoresis is used to determine whether amplification occurred. The next step involves introduction of the transformed vector into cells of the target organism. Since each vector has a designated marker, such as the presence of a sequence conferring resistance to a certain antibiotic, it is possible to select the transformed cells by culturing in a medium with the antibiotic. Cells that grow ascertain that they have undergone successful transformation. After successful transformation is ascertained, the transformed cells undergo culture in appropriate laboratory environment and conditions. Apparently, the DNA recombinant technology forms the core to the production of genetically modified organisms. Prior to the initial artificial manipulation of the genetic constitution of organism, scientists had observed naturally occurring recombination processes and expression of the inserted gene (Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, 2013). Incorporation of the foreign gene into an organism had occurred naturally even across species setting a model for the current DNA manipulations in a bid to improve the quality of organisms. After successful cell and tissue culture in the laboratory after transformation, it is possible to grow transformed organisms. In the case of plants, the seedlings obtained are allowed to grow under close monitor ring. Scientists often compare the growth of the generated organisms to the wild types. Additional arrays of tests to certain the expression of the inserted gene follow. A clear illustration is the case of the Bt maize that has a pest resistance gene inserted into it. The insect resistant gene emanates from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bu?rgi, 2009). In order to ascertain that the genetically modified maize is resistant to stem borers after the expression of the inserted gene, an array of tests follows comparing the transformed maize and the wild types. The monitoring of growth parameters in comparison with the wild types has been fundamental in determining the safety of GMOs. Evaluation of the level of safety of GMOs is critical before approval of a newly created GMO. Scientists embark on a rigorous testing process at all stages and assess any risks posed to the environment and to the consumers of the products. As mentioned above, it may prove difficult for genes to undergo expression in the settings of the target organism. This highlights the necessity and urgency of prior understanding of any factors that hinder or promote the expression of the inserted gene. It is also of importance to analyze any other changes that may occur in the target organism because the expression of a certain gene may affect the expression of others. An additional aspect that needs analysis is whether the transformed organism can transfer the inserted gene to its progeny. Due to the mosaic pattern evident in the inheritance of such traits, there is a need for scientists to establish ways of promoting the inheritance of the foreign gene. The development of gene mapping techniques has proved to be a benchmark in the production of genetically modified organisms. As mentioned above, understanding the genomes of organism is a precondition to any genetic manipulation. Genre mapping techniques seek to determine the locus of genes that code for certain characteristics. Gene mapping has been significant in determining the locations where gene insertion should take place. Being able to define the locus of insertion precisely is critical because it increases chances of expression of the gene (Bennett, 2013). A gene inserted wrongly cannot exhibit expression. Genre mapping does not seek to establish an entire sequence of the genome of an organism, but rather attempts to highlight the coding regions, highlighting the differences within a species and proving guidelines of manipulating the DNA. The potential of gene mapping is evident in the case of Dr. Sakamoto’s experiments in his attempts to apply modern genetic techniques and classical breeding to improve the quantity of a fish in an area where the population registers a high consumption, but the yields have been low (The Economist, 2012). After constructing gene maps of numerous fish species, the expert has been able to understand the loci that confer special traits in different species enabling him to control the process of breeding. The results registered so far provide evidence that genetic engineering can produce more benefits (Antoniou, Robinson, & Fagan, 2012). The DNA recombinant technology has proved useful in various fields already, and still presenting new realms of application to other fields. With the increasing cases of failed organs and tissues in the globe, there is a rising need for transplantation organs. The globe has previously relied on cadavers and willing donors as sources of biomaterials. However, there are challenges surrounding these sources of bio-materials. The primary challenges have been rejection resulting from incompatibility and the fear of disease transfer from donor to recipient. DNA recombinant technology has presented a reliable solution to this problem with the promise of a high supply of bio-materials that exhibit high compatibility levels. Scientists have analyzed the differences between the human organs and those of animals that present the closest similarity. With advancing understanding of the genes that regulate structure and function of organs, it has becomes possible to introduce a foreign gene from the human genome to animals, creating transgenic animals that have organs matching then human organs. Although there are still challenges to this venture, it is proving viable. Gene recombinant technology has exhibited multiple benefits in the pharmacy field. With a surging need for vaccines and new drugs to counter the multiple diseases threatening mankind today, there has been an endless search for ways of producing more specific and effective drugs. The search seems to be culminating in the potentials and possibilities presented by genetically modified organisms. Scientists have discovered the potential of producing large quantities and drugs by the use of transgenic microbes such as bacteria. Since these transgenic microbes multiply rapidly, the venture proves to be highly reliable. The field of agriculture has registered immense benefits fro m the application of the DNA recombinant technology. The globe has been facing the threat of being unable to feed the ever growing population from future prospects based on the diminishing land resources and multiple challenges facing agriculture. Therefore, the threat has been compelling experts to search for technologies that can increase the food yield, and provide crops with coping mechanisms. Adverse climatic changes and increased resistance to pests and diseases have been the greatest challenges in agriculture. Genetic engineering has offered reliable solutions through the production of transgenic plants registering high yields, and emerging possibilities of producing highly nutritious food crops and with exhibited capacity of resisting destruction by pests. The globe is facing the compulsion of discovering new energy sources. Evidently, the non-renewable sources that the globe has relied on for so long have threatened to diminish judging by the recent overexploitation and emerging needs for energy. The search for renewable energy sources that present minimal environmental effects has identified the potential presented by bio-fuel. Experts have discovered that transgenic yeasts have the potential of producing high levels of biofuel. However, research on the practicality of this is underway. As described above, the development of GMOs involves a rigorous process that requires multiple risk assessment processes. Despite the potential of genetically modified organisms, there are critical concerns for the safety of the organisms. Although there are warranted causes of concerns, there are multiple uniformed myths surrounding the safety of GMOs to the environment and consumers of the products. Many nations have embarked on defining regulatory measures that will serve to ensure that only products with proven safety receive approval for gaining entry into the market. References Antoniou, M., Robinson, C., & Fagan, J. (June 2012). Earth Open Source. GMO Myths and Truths. Retrieved on 4th April 2013 from http://earthopensource.org/files/pdfs/GMO_Myths_and_Truths/GMO_Myths_and_Truths_1.3b.pdf Bennett, D. (2013). Higher wheat yields and better breeding to follow genome mapping?. Bu?rgi, J. (2009). Insect-resistant maize: A case study of fighting the African stem borer. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK: CABI. Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. (2013). Genetically Modified Organisms and Aquaculture. The Process of Genetic Modification. Retrieved on 4th April 2013 from http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/Y4955E/y4955e06.htm. Kuldell, N. (2005)"Genetics I: Mendel's Laws of Inheritance," Vision Learning, 7.Retrieved on 4th April 2013 from http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=129 Philips, T. (2008). Nature Education. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Transgenic Crops and Recombinant DNA Technology. Retrieved on 4th April 2013 from http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetically-modified-organisms-gmos-transgenic-crops-and-732 Sandhu, S. S. (2010). Recombinant DNA technology. New Delhi: I.K. International Pub. House. Southwest Farm Press, 40(3), 16. The Economist. (November 3, 2012). Fish Farming. High-tech breeders. Retrieved on 4th April 2013 from http://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21565576-you-do-not-have-use-genetic-engineering-benefit-genetics-high-tech Tyagi, R. (2009). Understanding genetics. New Delhi: Discovery Publ. House. U.S. Department of Energy Genome Program. (May 17, 2012). Genetically Modified Foods and Organisms. Retrieved on 4th April 2013 from http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/gmfood.shtml . Read More