American, Russian, and Chinese Societies - Essay Example

Capstone Paper Introduction There exists diversity among different people due differences in norms and mental models which guide their actions and opinions regarding the appropriate solutions to issues. Differences in political ideologies rely on people’s norms and assumptions regarding how the society functions. The issue of whether political ideology constrains efficient mechanisms of problem solving has been subject to debate. Many empirical studies have been conducted to investigate whether democratic societies are more efficient than nondemocratic societies without reaching any meaningful conclusions. The perceptions and norms of society by voters influence their economic performance through affecting policies endorsed by politicians. The Americans value equality of political voice and democracy, while China and Russia tend to prefer socialistic values of communism. Russia’s transition to capitalism has been arduous, while China has undoubtedly embraced capitalism although retain their collectivistic ideologies. This paper will discuss the American, Russian, and Chinese societies within the context of political and economic system. The paper will elaborate on how political, economic, and other ideologies in these societies affect the three societies. Political and economic system of America The US economic ideologies are blend of capitalism and socialism although the vast continuum of social programs does not conform purely to capitalistic ideologies (Harshaw 1). The Americans tend to value equal political voice and democracy. In fact, the US is aggressively engaged in promoting democracy abroad. Such values are under increased threat amid persistent and increasing inequalities. The disparities in income, wealth, and opportunities are growing more steeply in the US than any other country in the world, with racial and ethnic disparities persisting. The realization of American democratic ideals seemed to have halted, and reversed in some areas. The Civil Rights revolution during the 1950s and 1960s made racial discrimination and exclusion to be socially and legally unacceptable in the American society. This resulted in widespread harmonious participation of whites and blacks in institutions of learning, employment, as well as all forms of civic and political organizations. This revolution has led to recognition of rights of women, with American currently accessing most of same political and economic opportunities as men do. The historically marginalized groups have also acquired rights to full participation within American institutions and tend to demand and enjoy the dignity associated with equal political voice to varying extents (American Political Science Association 2). In spite of integration of the American society across the historical barriers of ethnicity, gender, race, and social exclusion, the country has to grapple with widening disparities of income and wealth. Such disparities not only exist between the poor and affluent but also between elite professionals, executives, and managers on one hand, and the mediocre regular white-collar and blue-collar employees on the other side. The vast majority of American middle-class families are hanging loose with two- income households. The majority Black American, Hispanic, and women family heads are increasingly finding themselves on the losing end. Increase in segregation is imminent. Meanwhile, the bourgeoisie and the superrich continue to get richer more especially since the mid-1970s. The same period has seen about 1 % of Americans crossing over from poverty and middle-class into extreme wealth (American Political Science Association 4). The technological evolution,market pressures facilitating globalization and new ways of life may be the cause of the incessant and increasing economic disparities in America. The government regulations,social programs and tax policies can be useful solutions measures to counter the increasing socioeconomic disparities amid globalization accompanied by technological and demographic changes. The persistence and increasing socioeconomic gaps may also be partly attributable to the acceptance of such substantial disparities than their European counterparts. Most Americans tend to view inequalities as a manifestation of diversity among individuals rather than faulty economic system. The skewed income and wealth distribution is viewed as genuine outcomes of an individuals abilities and effort as long as everyone merit equal opportunities. The political ideologies tend to have a strong influence on acceptance of inequality by Americans. This may be attributable to the significant differences between the restricted American redistribution levels (Bjornskov 134). Most Americans approve of free enterprise and private assets. Americans strongly belive that everyone has an equal voice in democratic politics. Nevertheless, inequalities in political voice exist at pertubing levels. The governement tend to be more responsive towards the affluent members of the society. The affluent members tend to exercise their full rights as citizens. These class of Americans have greater opportunities to take part in politics as well as raising awareness of their needs and values to the government. Apart from voting ,citizens participate in democracy through organizations,including the voluntary and interest group and lobbyst associations. The US political parties tend to further aggravate inequalities, although used as vehicles for reaching the general public and rally them into politics. These parties tend to cater for the interest of same affluent American society that also disproportionately organize interest groups on their own behalf. The recruitment targets are usually the highly privileged and empowered. Both the Democrats and Republicans tend to rely heavily on campaign players and lobbysts amid decreasing voters. These parties tend to overlook the segment of voters who had not turn out for voting in the past (American Political Science Association 8). The Russian political and Economic system The Russia’s shift from communism to democracy and free enterprise has underlain major social changes shaping the rights of men and women. There seems to be ideological transition although the communist socialistic values are still strongly entrenched (Ralston, Holt and Terpstra 8). The post-Soviet society undergoes changing social relations influenced by complex factors including ethnicity,socio-economic status,state’s role in shaping current gender inequities and gender norms that constrain the attainment of global human rights. The Soviet Union had institute a social order whose cornestones were equal economic and political rights. However, such policies did not achieve much in transforming the social norms,including women being casted as household caretakers. Instead, the policies were mainly driven by the economic demands of each state. The Soviet state positioned it self as the universal authority that provided for and protected the society,which diminished the role of actual fathers through making men focus on treasuring their economic contribution. The State ensured affordable health care,free housing and higher education and prospect of comfortable retirement benefits (OBrien 1). The emphasis on heterosexual form of family by the Soviets was intended to socially construct an ideal Soviet society (Weilminster 30). Russian transition to capitalism,though likely to continue, is equivocal because the former power clouts does not approve of it (Ralston, Holt and Terpstra 8). Upon shift to democracy,the role of Soviet state as general provider for its citizens had declined. The rise of liberalization of economic markets has elicited considerable social instability and high unemployment rates. In spite of post-Soviet endorsement of homosexuality and emphasis on equality, these legal frameworks remain on paper rather than effectively enforced. Hence,Russia state is currently faced with inequalities,with many people living under poor economic and health conditions. Homesexuals continue to be harrassed and women victimized through public and private mechanisms of violence.The dominant gender norms within the Russian Society tend to underpin and shape inequalities,with men and women being associated with particular gender stereotypes. The liberalized market system and renewed emphasis on traditional tenets have created reestablishment of masculinity veneration as well as heterosexual family model. Such ideologies significantly contribute to the inequality between men and women,and persistent discrimination against the homosexuals. The Russian socialism subordinates women and homesexuals while venerating masculinity,and as such subjected to inequitable health and economic distribution,as well as increased increased predisposition towards violence (Weilminster 31). The transition of Russia from communism to democracy has caused immense economic strain,which has had adverse effects on both men and women in diverse ways. Men have to opt for any job as long as it steady (OBrien 1).The unemployment has ruined the masculine veneration of men as sole family providers and as the major contributors to the Russian economy. The state policies on equality are increasingly becoming lax even in spite of increased male support for women at home. This places women in a precarious situation because the tough economic times demand a two-income household. Many Russian women work within the public domain while simultaneouldy carrying out their role as chief caretakers at home. Furthermore,the women’s ability to procure stable employment is impaired by the widespread sexual harrassment and discrimination in the workplace (Weilminster 30). The Chinese Political and economic system The China’s economic reform of 1978 lead to adoption of the liberalized market system in order to realize modernization. China has undoubtedly shifted to capitalism. Nevertheless, China still adheres to the collectivistic values of socialism. The socialistic ideologies are still applicable to asset ownership as a mechanism of generating wealth. At least 80 % of Chinese business are owned collectively. China is currently the leading socialist economy especially with regard to economic ideologies. The widespread form of business ownership is the township and village enterprise (TVE) and includes foreign subsidiaries that are fully-owned and joint ventures. At least 80 % of shares of the companies listed in the local stock exchange are collectively held by the village or township,with remaining less than 20 % available to the public (Ralston, Holt and Terpstra 8). There exists inequitable distribution of income and wealth. The disparities between the beneficiaries of newly generated wealth is signified by the Shanghai’s glorious infrastructure and gleaming lights within the financial district,with the urban and rural poor experiencing labor insecurity and joblessness. In addition to socioeconomic rifts,the agricultural sector is under increased risk of long-term food insecurity because the market-driven economy aims at achiving immediate profit among businessmen. There is also the danger of environmental degradation due to excessive consumption of energy and hand-offs environmental policies (Hemelryk 23). Chinese are highly populous,with Han Chinese population forming the overwhelming majority. Chinese refers to many aspects of the Han ways of life,beliefs,and historical prejudice,although incorporates the many originating from other ethnic groupsuh,or those fully made up or reinvented ethnic groups. Chinese-ness,being a socially constructed and artificial ideology,is subject to negotiation,and relies on language,cultural practices and residential area. The border Chinese towns such as Xinjang and Tibet tend to host mutual qualitiesn,because the population in these towns are ethnically diverse although strategically proximate (Hemelryk 23). The integration of ethnic minorities into Chinese society has been a controversial issue since the 1980s. This may be attributable to the growing ethnic awareness as well as considerable growth in ethnic conflicts within China (Leutner 128). There exists gender inequalities in China. The one-child policy,although crude,has been effective in managing the rapidly growing Chinese population. However,the policy has not detrimentally affected the relative population of urban women of higher socioeconomic status. Nonetheless,the policy has had adverse effects on less affluent rural Chinese,with preference for male children underlying abandonment,neglect and elective abortion of baby girls. The government policies on renewed privatization of agrarian practice causes bias against girls because the Chinese society requires girls to cede land upon marriage,while demanding male input on land. Some urban Chinese women have had their husbands desert them for other women,usually younger,to produce male offspring when first attempt for male offspring failed (Hemelryk 33). Conclusion To summarize,the economic ideology of America is blend of capitalism and socialism are not purely capitalistic. Even though most Americans value equal political voice and democracy, the achievement of democratic ideals seemed to have stalled. There is increasing disparity in income and wealth distribution as well as professionalism and political voice. Russia’s shift to capitalism from communism has been tumultuous. This transition has diminished the fatherly role of State as a provider and protector of people. It has affected the rights of men and women in different ways. There is no doubt that China has shifted to capitalism although retains collectivistic ideologies of socialism. There exists genders rifts fueled by the one-child policy and re-privatization of agricultural practice,which has caused girl babies to be prejudized against by parents. Works Cited American Political Science Association. "American Democracy in an Age of Rising Inequality." Task Force on Inequality and American Democracy 2004: 1-22. Bjornskov, Christian. "Does Political Ideology Affect Economic Growth?" Public Choice 123 (2005): 133-146. Harshaw, Tobin. Weekend Opinionator: A Different Sort of Red America. 10 April 2009. 1 June 2012 Hemelryk, Stephanie Donald. The state of China atlas. England: U Calif Berkeley Pr (CA/NJ), 2005. Leutner, Mechthild. Rethinking China in the 1950s. Berlin: Münster Lit , 2007. OBrien, Timothy L. In Post-U.S.S.R. Russia, Any Job Is a Good Job. 11 January 2004. 1 June 2012. Ralston, David A, et al. "The Impact of National Culture and Economic Ideology on Managerial Work Values: A Study of the United States, Russia, Japan, and China." Working Paper n.d: 1-34. Weilminster, Lisa. "Gender and Human Rights." Topical Research Digest:Human Rights in Russia and the Former Soviet Republics n.d: 30-41. Read More