Understanding Reflection for Tesol - Coursework Example

UNDERSTANDING REFLECTION FOR TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages Introduction The word reflection is today used in education journals, pre-service teacher education and in-service trainings and conferences. This does not mean, however, that teacher education has ceased to value the need for mastery of teaching principles, methods and skills. Interest in reflection simply shows a contemporary educational trend which sees the value of a reflective teacher education program. Reflective practice in education is seen to be a complement to the technical competencies future teachers should acquire (Van Manen; Tom, 1985). Given the main aim of teacher education to impart technical competence in teaching, there is a general perception that an envisioned reflective teacher education program has yet to be solidly based. Education literature on the subject of reflection is scarce, as studies are considered seminal in nature. Also, the varied approaches to develop reflective skills are also varied and unclear. This paper therefore aims to examine the relevance and importance of the reflective practice in teaching-and-learning with particular focus on a specific instance of the use of the reflective approach to teaching English as a Second Language in the Sultanate of Oman where the first language is Arabic. 2. Understanding reflection Reflection is rooted in the Latin words re and flecto which connote a turning back such as in the case of light, heat, sound, etc. In human cognition, reflection refers to careful and thoughtful consideration (Chambers Dictionary, 1996). It is synonymous with cogitation, deliberation, pondering, self-examination, contemplation and plain thinking. From the story of Siddharta Gautama, we have an example of a noble person who practiced Hindu meditation which centered on nothingness as an escape to the pain, poverty and suffering of humanity. But the young monk was able to travel and see for himself the social reality which cannot be effaced through escapist thoughts. While under a Bo tree, he sat in earnest reflection, relating his thoughts with extra-mental reality. And then he woke up from his escapist stance to face reality and help alleviate its maladies through service. The Buddhist mission of service to humanity was caused through the power of reflection. From the Greek philosopher Socrates, we also learn that “an unexamined life is not worth living.” It may be equally true to say then that “ an unexamined teaching is not worth teaching.” Cognitive examination of education through reflection is therefore a most appropriate form of self-examination in order to ensure that teaching keeps its worth and noble value. Various definitions of reflection From a more modern perspective, Ross (1987) defines reflection as an act of reasoning by way of a positive response. In effect, reflection therefore relates to reason and responsibility. It easily applies to teaching since the teacher in the practice of his profession exercises reason in imparting content and using instructional methodologies in order to impart knowledge, values and psychomotor skills on learners. The craft and mission of teaching is highly reflective in nature even as teachers from ancient times, particularly the Grecian Era of great teachers like Socrates, Aristotle and Plato were renowned philosophers. Meanwhile, Cruickshant et al. (1981), more specifically defines reflection in teaching as the effective application of instructional methods in attaining given objectives. Undeniably, good teaching entails the setting of clearly defined objectives. This gives teaching a sense of direction. It is reflection which helps the teacher in formulating lesson objectives, so that the teacher can become focused on what to teach, how to teach, what materials to use to attain those objectives. Positing reflection in a social context, Dirkx (1989) describes reflection as a cognitive activity which allows the teacher to effectively relate with learners through the use of his/her role as a facilitator in the learning process. By use of reflection, the teacher applies the Theory of Multiple Intelligence and guides learners along their innate capacity to reflect by way of deliberating on ideas, idea construction and relationship, and idea argumentation, as well as formulating abstract as well as practical concepts in solving abstract concepts and concrete, such as in mathematics and the social sciences subjects. In sum, reflection is a tool at par with the potential reflective capacity which should be progressively developed among learners. Schon (1983) further clarified the concept of reflection by situating it within the instructional process of problem-setting and problem solving. For him it is reflection which performs the work of reframing improved learning. Given these views, it becomes clear that reflection relates to good teaching. This then justifies clarifying and exploring in-depth the affinity between reflective skills and the quality of teaching. Still, it is reasonable to recognize some critics of reflection in education, who assume that the concept of reflection is too broad and too vague for practical application in teaching. However, the days of the these critics may be over as modern education has generally conceded to the fact that reflection is a positive contribution to good teaching. At this instance it is therefore important to elaborate on certain concepts and principles which have been developed by educators and applied in the practice of teaching. 3. Reflective practice John Dewey (1859-1952) is recognized as one of the primogenitors the application of reflection in education. This is not surprising since his philosophy has helped advance the progressive education movement. He also espoused the cause of experiential education, such that his ideas is considered to be pivotal to the conduct of many bold educational experiments. In relation to reflection, Dewey adopts the view of education as “an active and deliberate cognitive process.” For him it involves a chain and careful sequencing of ideas with underlying principles and knowledge, while addressing practical instructional problems for resolution (Dewey, 1933). Dewey himself introduced certain key issues, foremost of which are (a) reflection’s link with action (b) this link being either immediate/short term or extended/systematic (c) reflection as ‘critical thinking’ or as finding a basis in wider cultural, historical, political values and beliefs (Gore & Zeicher, 1991). Extending Dewey’s idea of solving problems, most scholars see reflective action to be bound with a special form of thought in the light of knowledge and personal conviction, and not routine thoughts drawn from personal whim, authority or tradition In more technical terms, Schon (1983; 1987) introduced the concepts of reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action, meaning conscious thinking and modification during the action or after the action, respectively. He stressed the need for the teacher to frame the problem and after reflection reframe it. He disapproved the impersonal application of educational theories and principles. Admittedly, however, Shon’s reflection-in-action is a problematic concept. It sows confusion given the perception that reflection is essentially a thinking back after an event, not a thinking process simultaneous with an event. Still Schon’s supporters see no problem with the teacher simultaneously teaching and reflecting. They see that reflection-in-action refers to instant adjustment during the process of an event. Nonetheless, they admit that this would require a higher stage of competence among teachers. In sum, Shon’s supporters see that most teachers will generally find difficulties in the concrete application of reflection-in-action. Meanwhile, Schon’s concept of reflection-on-action is less controversial. It refers to evaluating effectiveness of teaching after implementation of instruction. Reflective evaluation is followed by behavioural adjustment through modifications in teaching content and style, if necessary. The term “technical reflection” has also been used for this kind of reflection-on-action (Killen, 1989; Cruickshankd, 1985). Regarding the link between reflection and problem-solving, there is agreement that the teacher should present real problems to learners. In addition, real problems will require reflective thought to find an adequate solution to these problems. Thereby insights are developed in terms of how learning objectives can be achieved and how difficulties may arise due to underlying cultural or professional influences (Pearson & Smith, 1985). 4. Core/Key Elements of reflection Core/key concepts of reflection in the practice of teaching revolve around values, importance, benefits and challenges. 4.1. Values Values refer to worth and the conception of values derived from reflective teaching practice has been outlined along a hierarchical structure emanating from kinds of reflection which the teacher can adopt in fulfilling his roles and responsibilities in the teaching-learning process. After Van Manen (1977) studied Habermas, , he proposed hierarchical values derived from three levels of academic reflection: 1. Technical reflection. The values of efficiency and effectiveness are paramount to the teacher within the paradigm of selected strategies and methodologies which can effectively achieve learning objectives in each learning units and the learning course as a whole. Technical reflection is said to precede all other kinds of reflections, as it serves as the basis for developing other forms of reflection, while providing instructional tools for teaching. 2. Practical reflection. This opens the value of open reflection in modifying both means or strategies to instruction as these may not be viewed conducive during the teaching-learning process in attaining originally pre-set instruction. Learning assumptions do not always conform with actual realities which can be affected by physical, psychological and social factors. Reflection-in-action may show students to be waning in attention or disturbed by the subject matter due to cultural reasons. For example in an Arabic culture, religious values are strong, and so sensitivity should prod the teacher to immediately adjust to resolve the issue. The value for open reflection therefore allows the teaching-learning process to be therefore negotiable, and not absolute. It was Gore and Zeicher (1991) who viewed practical reflection to be based on underlying value principles or ideologies. 3. Critical reflection. This includes consideration of the two previous levels of reflection. It incorporates ethical values assumptions, so that an activity or process can become just, respectable and equitable to the learners. In addition, the teacher’s action is viewed in the light of wider perspectives, such as socio-cultural and politico-historical contexts. While Shon’s framework encompasses all levels of reflection, other authors advanced additional idea along reflective and holistic appraisals contributing to art, intuition and professionalism in teaching (Altricher& Posch, 1989). This gives reflection a broader role as it serves as the impetus for the teaching craft to become an art form, cognitive capacities to translate to higher intuitive cognition, and for the worker teacher to transform self into a true professional in the field of education. Importance of reflective teaching practice Reflective practice in teaching departs from the traditional educational system of delivery of past learning to new generations of learners, which is the same as saying teachers are to teach what they know thus transmitting traditional knowledge to young men and women in generations which succeed them. This is like sustaining the status quo and preventing human growth and progress. In present day education, there is recognition of the advent of the post-industrial era and future technological changes speedily influencing present-day society, such that education should impart the capacity of new learners to face the future and not the past. Reflective teaching practice is especially beneficial in answering this need to impart to new learners the knowledge, values and skills for their sustainable future. To fully derive this beneficial goal, various strategies have been used to actualize reflective teaching practice together with immediately felt subsidiary benefits. . These strategies with their concomitant benefits are divided into: 1. Action research projects This involves problem strategy that engages students in the various steps of discovery or research: resolving and defining a problem, formulating a possible solution or hypothesis, and testing the hypothesis. The learners participate in activities of observation, experimentation, information gathering, information organization, interpretation of findings, and formulation of a solution. Learners benefit by way of being equipped for solution of real-life problems which will confront them in life. 2. Case studies and ethnographic studies of students, teachers and classes This takes learners into social inquiry by gathering insights on people, communities, social movements and trends. The emphasis of such discovery activities is the impact of social structures on human behaviour, as well as the effect of norms, values, and control forces on society. Learners benefit by getting attuned to social realities and bracing themselves to face the concerns and opportunities in society. live. 3. Microteaching and other supervised practicum experiences These are feedback mechanisms on classroom teaching and management, as well as reflective activities on field study courses particularly during the phase in pre-service education when student teachers are assigned to do practice teaching in schools. Student teachers in particular benefit by honing teaching skills through a demonstration process in an instructional setting. Modern field study courses immediately expose student teachers to laboratory or public school environments, allowing gradual adaptation to the future job they will assume. 4. Structured curriculum tasks Varied activities spring from the curriculum content, and reflective practices take students to the best learning scenarios such as hands-on-experience, class work requiring imagination and intuition, arguing/debating/problem solving, independent planning and organizing, etc. Student teachers acquire these higher thinking skills, elevating their competence and capacity to cope with the complexities of modern life and professions. Within the above approaches, specific techniques have been adopted which include reading, oral interviews, open-ended discussion, journal writing, use of metaphors for teaching, role playing, etc. There are various types of reading such as fiction and non-fiction; kinds of journal-making such as narratives, biographies, reflective essays on personal experience. Metaphors for teaching are used as a basis to reflect on underlying assumptions, also on how assumptions lead to solve problems. Students benefit through expansive acquaintance with sources of self and lifelong learning. 5. Reflection and TESOL Reflection has become part of the approaches to education, inclusive of teaching a second language to learners who are not native English speakers. Since the interest of this paper is Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages or TESOL, it is well to now focus discussions on reflective teaching of a second language. This teaching approach is anchored on the ability of the teacher to guide students to reflect on their own experiences in order to arrive at second language facility in speaking, writing and thinking. From the experience of linguists, a language is more easily learned through total exposure to a place, people, and culture where the second language is spoken. In some cases, it takes only a single month for a visitor to stay in a locality and be able to communicate socially using basic language tools—simple words and phrases. While traditional basic language education takes the form of learning grammar, a more advanced method is to engage students right-off in second language communication along basic and real-life interaction, such as through conversation, role playing, photo language-- using the second language which need to be learned. Dewey himself described reflective teaching as “behaviour which involves active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or practice “ (Corpuz, 2007). It therefore involves a thoughtful analysis of a teacher’s actions, decisions and outcomes of teaching. 6. TESOL in the Sultanate of Oman The Sultanate of Oman is an independent economic power since the 1800s owing to its seafaring resources. Under a benevolent ruler, it has used its oil revenues for the people’s welfare through national infrastructure and services program. Arabic is the national language with active dialects. The country has adopted English as a second language and public signs and markers appear in both Arabic and English. Owing to the Sultanate’s goal to create a progressive and global environment, the TESOL program has received popular suppor to pursue its goals. . Relative to TESOL, it is fitting to cite the key characteristics of reflective learning as introduced by Schulman (1990): (a) an ethic of caring (b) a constructivist approach (c) tactful problem solving. Ethic of caring refers to the teacher’s expression of thoughtfulness, mindful of the particular Arabic language and culture in Oman. To care means to be ethically bound to understand students expressed by three effective ways of confirmation, dialogue and cooperative practice. To confirm, the teacher takes time to help students discover individual inclinations such as to the ties of language to local conditions of things, people, places, and events. Herein, linguists find the difficulty of reconciling learning a national language of a country and the many dialects that are used and highly valued by local regions or districts. A real dilemma exists since a national language has to be imposed for unity of a whole country or nation, while the cultural worth of the priceless heritage of indigenous tongues has to be preserved for posterity. To dialogue means to exchange ideas honestly and openly about innermost concerns of learners focused especially on difficulties of learning a new tongue. The goal is to understand the learners and guide them effectively, rather than simply impart word, phraseology or grammar application. To employ cooperative practice, partnership between learners and teacher as well as peers, such as though joint language work projects can optimize the student’s communication experience along meaningful situations, such that second language becomes part of practical thinking skills. Formation of small language groups or language learning buddies works well in advancing second language acquisition and appreciation. 7. Strategies to Second Language reflective learning Learning strategies that are reflective in nature need to be employed for the benefit of second language learners in Oman. Preferably, the established package of teaching-learning methodologies can work effectively and these are: 1. Self-analysis A reflective teacher keeps a record of success or failure on strategies used, on problems and issues, particularly in a localized and still tradition-rich country like Oman. Learning events also deserve recording for recall, review and adjustments. Writing them down helps in analyzing and clarifying important aspects that contribute to future decisions towards effective learning At the same time, the student learner engages in self-analysis by way of reflecting on the what, why and how there were successes or failures in language class work. 2. Writing journals A journal is a record of learning experiences containing: (a) a description of the language learning process (b) outcomes of the process (c) value or worthiness of the results, and (d) causes of success or failure. It is best that journals reveal inner feelings about language learning activities, including what could have enhanced or inhibited learning. In this regard, certain important principles can be made about learning a new language within an Arabic culture, among which is the need for the teacher to regard native language of the learner as equal if not superior in worth to the native and to the region, and not a less worthy language compared English, as a Second Language. 3. Keeping a portfolio Both teacher and student can keep a portfolio or a logbook which contains not only written texts but other materials such as photos, graphs, and documents. This reflect an open, honest and on-the-spot account of experiences, such as the teacher’s first hand observations and students reactions to learning. 4. Teacher’s observations The teacher answers questions along motivations which need to be maintained or enhanced, results or failures, teacher’s ability to relate to the person of the learner and to real-life situations, and the teacher’s overall classroom management skills. 5. End-lesson questions At the end of every lesson, routine reflective questions are asked relating to the significance of the learning event, strategies used, flexibility adopted, modification in lessons as suited to response, and other learning results about the personal and professional handling of the lesson. The experiential learning process of reflection—looking back at what is learned or not learned-- is most useful in gaining insights through analysis and to applying this new knowledge to the language acquisition work. Through the reflective approach, the students benefit most as they not only gain language skills, but acquire understanding and value for what they learned as a new competence skill most useful for them personally and as a young citizen of the progressive Sultanate of Oman. 8. Future challenges While there is today a consensus that reflection forms an integral part of technical skills which should be imparted in teacher education and in teaching in general, the clear connections between reflection and effective learning still need to be empirically tested. There have been certain studies along this need but research literature has yet to clarify concepts and practices. Much of the difficulties spring from the underlying view that the primary goal of education is still to impart technical competence. Meanwhile reflective approaches are watered down to the consideration of feelings, thoughts and social relationships which run along humanistic and personalistic orientation (Dirkx, 1989). Nonetheless, it has become clear that reflection is fundamental to good contemporary teaching, especially with the introduction of student-centered learning away from-teacher-centered orientation. While the sound theoretical basis for reflective practice remains to be better established, vagueness is superseded by benefits already made palpable and fitting enough to claim that reflective teaching-and-learning is good teaching-and-learning. From four studies done using a mathematical model in a teacher education college called SOL in Utrecht, the Netherlands, there were views expressed on what should characterize reflective education. These are: (a) Good education needs to focus on the student’s learning with the learner as the center in the process and the teacher as a guide or facilitator. (b) The teacher needs to present real-and-concrete problems which can be approached by students through analysis, structuring, and testing of solution alternatives. Case studies and ethnological inquiries serve this need. (c) More attention must be given to problem-solving, collaborative learning, meta-cognitive strategies and learning how to learn. This is consonant with the desire to depart from rote learning and memorization and to inculcate higher thinking skills among learners. (d) The ultimate goal is the promotion of conscious and strategic learning. Instead of learning to pass tests, students must appreciate learning for life-long and sustainable experience in their personal, social and professional life. (e) There is a need to set a helpful and cooperative relationship with a climate of security and challenge. This is the same as building up self-esteem and confidence to enable learners to continually achieve beyond school and on to the field of professional work. (e) The strategy of gradualness should be adopted. Slowly, the student attains the capacity to assume responsibility for work and future responsibilities in life. (f) A systematic and conscious manner of dealing with the subject matter should be followed. While coverage of content is necessary, quality in learning should be fostered. 9. Benefits of TESOL reflective practice Through a study, Valerie Hobbs (2007) provided an insight into reflective practice within the context of a TESOL certificate course in Trinity College, London. As this study can benefit the TESOL program in the Sultanate of Oman, it is well worth the effort to discuss this. Hobbs narrates reflective practice (RP) by many course providers for the aims of student teachers acquiring critical self-awareness skills. However, he warns that teachers in training may find routines of reflection activity to be disgusting, if not also time-consuming. They lack the sincerity and openness of those who have critical awareness, while continuing to support traditional teacher education programs. And while they may have to participate in such varied activities as journal writing, autobiographical writing, and recording of past learning experiences in relation to more recent ones, these are done simply as typical course assignments. Thus, the question validly arises: Can reflective practice be required as part of the course, and are the PR reflection activities for real? The TESOL research served to provide an answer. Using a framework of valid methodologies consisting in field notes, interviews, conversations, questionnaires and course documents, the evaluation of Reflective Practice focused on the language awareness component of the TESOL program. It became manifest that problems arise from the reliability of portfolio assessment since the novice teacher knew they will be evaluated on the basis of these documents. Desiring to produce evidences that downplay personal weaknesses and play-up strengths, the documents lost validity as genuine assessment instruments. Pleasing the tutors was also the motive for other reflective instruments such as the journal and other reflective exercises. Instead of honesty, there was resentment towards the required reflective work. The study concluded that there was evidence of purposeful deceit, such that the reflective self-development process failed to serve its puspose as a positive learning tool. Overall, the research was most helpful since, it was able to uncover possible defects in the RP program, thus introducing valid recommendations, among these being: (a) introducing RP gradually, not forcing students to reflect thus increasing honesty and openness (b) giving more alternatives to participants like group discussion and writing assignment of their own choice. (c) providing opportunity for participants to gain confidence and awareness outside a threatening environment. In sum, the TESOL RP program in Trinity College London may have had its failings, the program deserves to be saved and sustained. 10. Conclusion While it may be true that the reflective practice in teaching and learning may yet be on its seminal stage, still the future is bright for the reflective teaching-and-learning process to take the upper-hand in education. The challenges outlined by this paper easily apply to Second Language Education in the Sultanate of Oman, as well as in other fields of education. Still, reflective teaching practice is likely to encounter difficulties. Still, these should be considered to be challenges, not obstacles to learning. There is a need also to respect tradition along social, cultural and political perspectives for a country like Oman to progress while preserving the richness and prestige of its national legacies. And while reflective learning may be difficult to formulate, and there are powerful cultural differences existing in the Arabic region, these are not permanent obstacles to successful reflective practice in education. Already, there are feedbacks related to reflective students having strong feelings of personal security and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1982; McCombs, 1988). Learners experiencing self--efficacy to speak, write, complete projects and succeed may become the biggest motivation for fully adopting and developing reflective practice in education. Reflective teaching-and-learning may be nearer to us than we think. #### References Alrichter, H. & osch, P. (1989). Does the ‘Grounded Theory’ Approach Offer a Guiding Paradigm for Teacher Research? Cambridge Journal of Education. 19(1), 21-31. Bandura, P. Comas, J., & Ross, D (1989). Examining the relationship between perceptions of efficacy and reflection. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. San Francisco. Corpuz, B. & Salandonan, G. (2007). Principles of Teaching 1. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Cruickshank, D., Kennedy, J., Williams, E., Holton, J. And Faye, E. (1981). 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