English as a Foreign Language - Essay Example

Objective: Review of current literature on vocabulary acquisition in teaching and learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL). Introduction: English is the most widely used language in the world with its use affecting over one sixth of the world's population. It ranks second to Chinese as a mother tongue although 'Chinese' comprises six mutually unintelligible dialects. 60% of radio programs and 70% of world's mail are conducted in English. English is a significant factor in national unification of many nations from Sierra Leone to Malaysia. English is the national language of twenty-one nations including Lesotho and Liberia and an official language in fifteen others including Cameroon and Dahomey. (Brumfit 1978 1-2) As the usage of English spread to different parts of the world, it inevitably led to the divergence of the language leading to variations such as American, Australian, Indian, South African & etc. These variations are influenced by local culture, custom and language and are reflected in variations in grammar, meaning, spelling, syntax and pronunciation. The core of Standard English common for all English speaking countries is the reference point for all these variations. Vocabulary of the language is expanding at a phenomenal rate and many new words coined for use in diverse fields such as arts, humanities, science and technology. (Barber 1965 227-275) Developments in information technology and the advent of the 'internet' have added a whole new dimension to the teaching and learning of English as a foreign language. Motivational theories of learning: The motivation to learn a language is twofold: one, 'instrumental' in which case the language is learnt for operational purposes to be able to communicate with other speakers of the language and two, 'integrative', in which case the learner is trying to identify much more closely with the native speakers. The usage of English may be broadly divided into two categories: the usage of English as mother tongue (MT), its usage as second language (SL) or foreign language (FL). When English is taught or learnt as a foreign language it is mostly for operational reasons or the motivation is 'instrumental'. (Brumfit 1978 5-6) Reviewing the work of a number of researchers Lessard-Clouston, defines the characteristics of language learning strategies: they are learner generated, enhance language learning, are visible, involve information and memory, generate a desire for control or autonomy in the learner, allow learners a choice, allow learners to become more self-directed, expand the role of language teachers, are problem oriented, involve many aspects not just the cognitive, can be taught, are flexible and are influenced by a variety of factors. Transfer of strategy of one language skill to another is a related goal. (1997) Learning English as a second (or foreign) language depends on contextual factors (the impact of the learner's mother tongue), individual learner differences (cognitive factors like intelligence, aptitude and language strategies and affective factors like attitude, motivation and anxiety), learning opportunities and outcomes. Mitchell and coauthor base their thesis on Spolsky's "general model of second language learning." They opine that any theory that explains the dynamics of SLA should be able to state clearly and explicitly the ground it covers and claims it makes; systematize procedures for data gathering; explain L2 phenomena, the reasons for them and any mechanisms for change; engaging with other theories in the field. (Mitchell. et al. 2000 11-26). Any approach in researching SLA has to take into consideration that language is learnt in "context". This has to take into consideration both the internal and external realities and investigate the mode by which mental processes convert reality into contexts. Research methodologies, which rely on objectivity, cannot deal with the theory of context. There is a need to reappraise qualitative research methods to test their viability in research into language learning. While considering the extent to which "constructivist epistemology" offers a link between "qualitative ethnographic and cognivist research " into research on SLA, we may safely conclude that clearly defined explicit processes can validate qualitative research and can help elucidate independent interpretations. (Wendt 92) Research during the last three decades suggests that second language acquisition is indeed facilitated by attention to affect. The development of humanistic psychology with its holistic approach to learners focused on individual emotions and feelings. (Rossiter 2003) While some L1 writing strategies may transfer into L2, "lower proficiency writers struggle in utilizing all strategies that could help their writing process in L2." (Wolfersberger 2003) Jiang points out that according to existing research studies, "semantic development is slow, and often incomplete process in adult L2 learning and that even advanced L2 learners continue to rely on their L1 semantic system in L2 use." (2004 101). This is corroborated by recent research, which indicates that even highly proficient learners of second language cannot completely rid themselves of the influence of their mother tongue (L1). (Odlin 2005) The characteristics a good language learner exhibits are motivation, aptitude, personality, intelligence, and learner preferences. However it may not be as simple as it may seem because it is difficult to measure some of these characteristics like for e.g. motivation or even intelligence. Further these characteristics may not be completely independent of one another. It finally revolves on the teacher to be sensitive to individual learner differences and abilities and to create a learning environment in which all learners can achieve SLA competence. (Patsy et al. 2000 28-43). Most scholars are aware that the best empirical way to learn a foreign language is to read a lot in that language. Krashen argues that there is overwhelming evidence to conclude that recreational reading increases second language competence. In fact, according to him, free voluntary reading "may be a powerful tool" for language learning and "an effective way for increasing literacy and development" with a strong impact on "comprehension, vocabulary, grammar and writing." Further, as the learner enjoys reading it eases the transition from elementary level to authentic use and conversational ability to academic ability. (2003) Vygotsky's work seems to have greatly influenced Krashen. For e.g. Krashen's input hypothesis resembles Vygotsky's zone of proximal development. Similarly Krashen's theory of language acquisition and Vygotsky's internalization of language are both based on a common assumption - interaction of people. Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development as taking place in the matrix of social development and being a result of it runs parallel to Krashen's concept of acquisition.(Schtz nd.) Approaches to teaching (EFL - SLA): Two methods of teaching English as second language acquisition (SLA) were followed till the sixties: they were the grammar-translation method (based on the theory that learning a language was an intellectual process) and the audio-linguistic method (ALM - based on behavioral theory). However the lacunae of these theories have since been exposed. Ellis points out that a distinction must be made between technical (knowledge existing in codified form) and practical (knowledge that is implicit and intuitive) in the understanding of SLA. Ellis quotes Weiss who proposed three models for application of technical knowledge to create practical knowledge: the decision-driven model, the knowledge-driven model and the interactive model. (2000 44-73) There have been a number of approaches that experimented with connecting second language teaching with first language acquisition. Skehan explains two such instructional approaches: the first is "comprehension-driven learning" under "exposure to meaningful input." The second that arose because of dissatisfaction with the first proposes "engaging in interaction and producing output." The logic behind this is that though paradoxical in the context of SLA, quality input and quality output are not only interdependent but need not be in the same order. This means that while quality input results in quality output, as common sense indicates, quality output in turn generates quality input. Beginning with this hypothesis several roles have been assigned to output in SLA. They are generation of better input; forcing syntactic processing; testing hypotheses; developing automaticity; developing discourse skills and developing a personal voice. (2000 75-87) Initiation-response-feedback (IRF) method is suggested as one of the more effective forms of SLA. Its benefits vary from rote learning and repetition; helping the students to think, reason and make connections; to probe, clarify, substantiate or illustrate points made earlier. The method however has limitations. It is closed-ended and controlled by the teacher. Secondly, the single word responses that the teacher might elicit do not help extending the learning process. It is suggested that the classroom program needs to be more interactional in order to stretch the learning process in the acquisition of SLA. A program that is designed to make the pupils not just 'doing' but 'doing thinking' - as they are encouraged to do in science teaching/learning will greatly benefit the acquisition of SLA. (van Lier 2000 94-95) The techniques used by teachers in the IRF method fall into three categories: to elicit response from learners, to respond to what learners say and to describe shared experiences with a view to extending the learning process. (These techniques are common to any language teaching and not necessarily limited to EFL). Code switching or using the pupil's mother tongue to facilitate learning is considered to be of dubious value by some researchers. This however does not mean directly translating from one language to another but is more complex. It involves at least three steps: stating the key topic in English; amplification or clarification in the pupil's mother tongue and restatement in English. (Mercer 2000 246-251) Inter-textual language learning plays an important role in SLA and wide a range of inter-textual relationships exist in the classroom situation. They include what a teacher says and what the pupils are expected to read; what they listen and what they are expected to write; the lesson that is taught and the texts they are expected to consult for their homework and the familiar language or dialect of the home and the less familiar language of the class. If these links are considered inter-textually and the missing linguistic bridges recognized, a curricular program that suits all learners might be developed. (Gibbons 2000 261-267) Psychological and sociological approaches to teaching SLA: Vygotsky's theory of "zone of proximal development" may be used as a "pedagogical scaffolding" to extend the benefits of IRF. Care must be taken to see that the scaffolding is gradually dismantled and to increase levels of "intrinsic motivation" of the learner. Schtz explains "zone of proximal development" as all the functions a learner can perform only with assistance, in contrast to the "actual developmental level" which denotes all functions the learner can perform independently. The instructor, parent, teacher, or a peer who has mastered the language plays the role of scaffolding in a non-intrusive way, helping the learner along in the transition from "zone of proximal development" to "actual developmental level" Schtz makes one more important observation in his article which is quoted verbatim: " when it comes to language learning, the authenticity of the environment and the affinity between its participants are essential elements to make the learner feel part of this environment. These elements are rarely predominant in conventional classrooms." (nd.) The person who provides the scaffolding as mentioned above may use "contingency" (the term has two characteristics: shared knowledge and crafting ambiguities to extend the conversation) and "negotiation" as the means or techniques to achieve this. Mercer agrees with the need for gradual dismantling of the scaffolding when he cautions against the use of "relying heavily and continuously on traditional formal question-answer-reviews for" which allows little scope for the students to be creative and use more expressive ways of language learning. (van Lier 2000 94-95; Mercer 2000 245-246). Roberts suggests second language socialization (SLS) as an effective means of SLA in the wider context of racism, indifference and stratification in multi-language societies that feed on local interactional differences, misunderstandings and covert or explicit opposition. (2000 120; Canagarajah 2000 208-226; Chick 2000 227-241). Classroom as socio-cultural platform for learning: The assessment of effective learning in a classroom should be based not only on the language acquisition theory but also on the psychology of the student and the general educational atmosphere as well. The methodology for this should consider the following questions: (1) what is the desired outcome (2) what model of language is it based on and (3) what model of learning is it based on (Knight 2000 147-169) Classroom provides a cultural setting for SLA as it provides optimal input but it is the socio-cognitive frame of reference within the classroom that determines the extent to which the pupil utilizes the input for effective learning. Social relationships in the classroom certainly facilitate learning by orchestrating on what is available for learning, what is learnt and how the learning is done. (Breen 2000 125, 308; Gibbons 2000 268; Mercer 2000 246). Miller elaborated the concept by defining the inter-relationship between socio-cultural and linguistic patterns as consisting of discourse competence, linguistic competence, actional competence, sociocultural competence and strategic competence. Mastering these competences has an underlying objective of achieving high linguistic proficiency. Some authorities rate "high proficiency" as competence equaling that of a near-native speaker. (2000 24) 'Culture' in the context of SLA is viewed from five different perspectives: the communicative view, the classical curriculum view, the culture-free language view, the deconstructionist view, and the competence view. The last two make for a dynamic interaction between language and culture inter-operative with each other. This assumption was once questioned but now more or less accepted, as an understanding of culture is needed for a full understanding of the language. (Holme 2002 18) Holtzer recounts an interesting study (the SCOTLANG program) in her paper on learning culture by communicating. In the study a native speaker assists an L2 learner by code switching between L1 And L2. The development of competence by the L2 learner depends on her receptive and reproductive L2 communication skills as also on the support she receives from the L1 speaker. (2002 43-49) In evaluating classroom interactive learning, a study of learner idiosyncrasies might help in understanding the complexities of SLA and evolving in suitable methodologies to overcome problems that arise. This is because the input is a co-product of the teacher and the taught determined by learner idiosyncrasies. Secondly, learners' uptake or what has been learned cannot be construed as a simple linear outcome of classroom discourse. (Kramsch 2002 4; Slimani 2000 301) The difference between effective and ineffective SLA depends on several factors: classroom management ("student behavior, movement and interaction during a lesson organized and controlled by the teacher"), structuring (clear intentions and sequenced activities), tasks (assigned activities to achieve particular learning objectives) and grouping of students within the class for effective learning exercises. The effectiveness of SLA depends on the student's participative competence, interactional competence and academic competence. (Richards 2000 170-172). Teaching methods like ALM (Audio Linguistic Method) and humanistic methodologies like TPR (Total Physical Response) and the Silent Way teach one linguistic item at a time. Classroom practices like grammar and vocabulary explanations, display questions, fill-in-the-blank exercises, dialog memorization drills and error correction help objective learning. However some researchers have dissented, arguing that these methods interfered with language learning. They, on the other hand, advocate "experiencing it as a medium of communication" as the best way of SLA. Interlanguage (IL) developmental sequences (e.g.: Swedish negation, English relative clauses and German word order) have to be traversed before mastering the target language system. Available evidence suggests that the developmental sequences are the same in the Ils of children, adults, of naturalistic, instructed and mixed learners, of learners from different L1 backgrounds and of learners performing different tasks. Therefore, Long observes that at least a part of language learning is beyond a teacher's or textbook writer's control. He suggests focus on form (as distinct from focus on forms), which "reveals an underlying similarity among various teaching methods" as a "potentially important design feature for distinguishing instructional methodologies."(2000 181-183) SLA and teaching methodology: The linear approach - of building brick by brick - may be the starting point for teaching grammar. A more organic approach that strikes an appropriate balance between exercises that help learners with grammatical forms and using those forms to communicate freely is worth attempting. (Nunan 2000 198) Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) with its emphasis on inquiry learning, process and naturalism is considered a useful alternative tool for teaching ESL but needs to be supplemented with systemic explanations of the functions of language in various social contexts. (Burns 2000 200). Corbett finds limitations to this approach. According to him the objective of SLA should be beyond filling a series of information gaps expecting that this will help the pupil "naturally" to develop linguistic skills. Corbett observed that a language course imbued with culture takes the learner beyond mastering reading, writing, listening and speaking skills. It helps the learner understand the language and behavior of the target community and explain it to members of the home community and vice versa. (2003 1-12). Learning vocabulary and idioms: Language ability is generally measured by the learner's ability to understand precise meanings, comprehensive word knowledge and network knowledge. As this is a multi-dimensional construct, 'depth' or even 'depth and breadth' are inadequate to describe it but calls for more specific definitions. (Read 2004 209) According to the cognitive semantic theory, the meaning of many idiomatic expressions may be 'motivated' rather than 'arbitrary' with the verbal information stored as a mental image providing an extra pathway for recall. In an experiment concerning 400 idioms, Boers and co-workers demonstrated that a not only a fair amount of idioms are etymologically transparent to the learners, but also, imparting information about their origin helped the learners figure out their meaning independently. (2004) Methodology for SLA Research: One of the more difficult tasks researchers face while collecting data is minimizing the intrusion of their subjective observations. Such subjectivity may be avoided by clearly defining objectives, defining the researcher's stance (ethical research, advocacy research or empowering research) defining the methodology for recording (public or private, permission and openness, discussing recording with participants and identifying participants in reports) and transcribing data in advance. (Swann 2000 323-337) Most researchers agree that learning a language other than mother tongue is a complex process. The quality and extent of learning varies over time. It is therefore necessary to study the problems faced in SLA research over a period of time or conduct 'longitudinal studies'. It was only in the recent past that their importance was realized, with many earlier researchers overlooking the importance of such studies. (Ortega et al. 2005) Review of some recent research: Leverett's review of the methodology chapters in the Handbook of Research on Teaching the English Language Arts (Second Edition) is a valuable tool for considering various aspects of research methodology: empirical research, longitudinal studies, case studies, ethnography, teacher research, teacher inquiry into literacy, social justice, and power and synthesis research. () In a study conducted in Iran, with a comparative experimental design with a ten-week span, involving two similar groups of students, Rasekh and co-author demonstrated the effectiveness of meta-cognitive learning strategies in SLA. The strategy involved planning of vocabulary learning, setting specific goals within a specified timeframe, selecting appropriate learning strategy, using a combination of strategies, monitoring the use of strategies, self-testing degree of mastery of new vocabulary items, managing some time during study hours for vocabulary practice and finally evaluating results. The study corroborated earlier studies on cognitive strategies (explicit and embedded) with reference to development of skills and components of language. (2003) Yongqi Gu calls for a diversification of effort in designing models for research (top-down and bottom-up) that goes beyond presentation and retention of words instead of searching for the best practices that yield best results. (Yongqi Gu 2003). Current research into language learning is not adequate to determine with any degree of accuracy the extent to which stable factors such as individual learner differences impact on beliefs. Hence there is need for an inter-disciplinary approach to beliefs about language learning. This is because beliefs are a central construct in every discipline concerning human behavior. Bernat recommends addressing the following questions: "the effectiveness of possible intervention methods, particularly, if beliefs about language learning are found to be related to such stable factors as personality traits; whether intervention methods should be implemented overtly or covertly; which theory or approach should be used in possible intervention methods; whether language teachers are qualified to deliver intervention measures; and, what consequences will such "cognitive therapy" have on the learners, given that beliefs may be resistant to change" (2005) There has been a considerable body of research into the teaching of ELT. Extending this research into studying the trainees (in teaching ELT) especially the process or processes that help them grow from learners to teachers will help designing research methodologies and the training process itself. The change can be gradual and a complex mixture of change, adaptation, and resistance. (Borg 2005) While teachers consider their profession time consuming and complex and research an additional burden, reflective writing on their experience and practice performs a potential role in carrying forward their own learning and professional renewal. (Burton 2005) The School for International Training (SIT), Vermont, USA established the Teacher Knowledge Project (TKP) in 1998. The objective of the project is to study the "reflective practices" of teachers and offer them a disciplined way examining their teaching vis--vis student learning. The project has conducted seminars in the following areas with relation to SLA: "renewed enthusiasm for teaching; looking at teaching with "fresh eyes"; shifts in understanding teaching; becoming more reflective and aware as teachers; enhancing the quality of student learning and building professional communities." These seminars provided the teacher the opportunity and framework for reflective professional development. The seminars brought to light the interest of the teachers with so many years of experience to come to grips with thechallenges of the profession and their desire to seek solutions to problems they routinely face in teaching SLA. (Curtis et al. 2005) Teachers' perceptions of the four skills viz. speaking, listening, reading and writing are a result of two types of knowledge: theoretical knowledge and experimental knowledge based on experience and memories. These perceptions relate to the understanding of pedagogical tenets and in resolving potential conflicts and dilemmas. (da Silva 2005) English language teachers' complex set of beliefs - especially where practices converged or diverged with their belief systems about grammar are likely to impact on classroom practices in the context of teaching. (Farrell 2005) There has been a lot of criticism that 'English as second language' teaching often incorporates teaching of western values. Some of the criticism may be justified but inasmuch as language is a socio-cultural construct, it may not be possible to altogether avoid imparting culture while teaching a language for communicative competence. (Johnson 2005) The objectives of a research project conducted in the University of Alabama, were to find out the academic and social needs (in the view of mainstream teachers) of English language learners and their families; the types of interaction the teachers have with the students' families; the professional relationship the mainstream teachers have with the ESL teachers; are mainstream teachers familiar with the strategies or activities that facilitate English language learners' grasp of the language and integrate them into the community. The study concludes that the three factors that shape a learner's learning are cognitive adjustments, transformed tools or artifacts and transforming surroundings as proposed by Vygotsky (Mantero 2005) The initiatives for standardizing professional teaching of adult ESL in Canada have interesting implications in the country's multicultural society. Communication between individuals and bodies with different group affiliations has a significant impact on the establishment of teaching standards of ESL. The remarkable degree of acceptance the approach has elicited from various quarters across the country is likely to take the second language education forward. (Sivell 2005) There is increased evidence in recent times of the necessity to adopt an interdisciplinary approach for language teaching particularly in the context of SLA teaching. Such an approach, it was felt would help develop teachers by helping them make adjustments to demands of curriculum and learner needs. While it was felt that team teaching requires a lot of "planning, skilled management and willingness to take risks, humility, open-mindedness and creativity" the rewards can be great in terms of student learning and teacher growth, if the partnership can be made to work. (Stewart 2005) Barber, C.L., The Story of Language. 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Context and Culture in Language Teaching and Learning. Clevedon, , GBR: Multilingual Matters Limited, 2002. p 18. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=10052002&ppg=24 Copyright 2002. Multilingual Matters Limited. All rights reserved. Holtzer, Gisle. Learning Culture by Communicating:Native - Non-Native Speaker Telephone Interactions. (ed.) Byram, Michael. Context and Culture in Language Teaching and Learning. Clevedon. GBR: Multilingual Matters Limited, 2002. p 43. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=10052002&ppg=49 Copyright 2002. Multilingual Matters Limited. All rights reserved. Jiang, Nan. Semantic transfer and development in adult L2 vocabulary acquisition. (ed.) Bogaards, Paul.Vocabulary in a Second Language. Selection, Acquisition, and Testing. Philadelphia, PA, USA: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2004. p 101-115. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=10064637&ppg=115 Copyright 2004. John Benjamins Publishing Company. 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English Language Teaching in Its Social Context. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 2000. p 180-189. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=2002532&ppg=189 Copyright 2000. Routledge. All rights reserved. Mantero, Miguel. Language, Education, and Success: A View of Emerging Beliefs and Strategies in the Southeastern United States.URL: Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (TESL-EJ). Vol. 9 No. 1. June 2005. URL: http://tesl-ej.org/index.html Mercer, Neil. Language For Teaching A Language. (ed.) Mercer, Neil. English Language Teaching in Its Social Context. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 2000. p 243-257. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=2002532&ppg=257 Copyright 2000. Routledge. All rights reserved. Miller, Jennifer. Language, Identity and Audibility: A New Theoretical Framing. Audible Difference: ESL and Social Identity in Schools. Clevedon. GBR: Multilingual Matters Limited, 2003. p 21. ttp://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=10051975&ppg=37 Copyright 2003. Multilingual Matters Limited. All rights reserved. Mitchell, Rosamond and Myles, F., Second Language Learning: Key Concepts And Issues. (ed.) Mercer, Neil., English Language Teaching in Its Social Context. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 2000. p 11-25. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docuid=2002532&ppg=25 Copyright 2000. Routledge. All rights reserved. Nunan, David. Teaching Grammar In Context. (ed.) Mercer, Neil. English Language Teaching in Its Social Context. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 2000. p 191-198. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=2002532&ppg=198 Copyright 2000. Routledge. All rights reserved. Odlin, Terence. Fundamental Issues In Language Learning. Crosslinguistic Influence and Conceptual Transfer: What are the concepts Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (2005 25: 3-25) 8 Dec. 2005. URL: http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstractfromPage=online&aid=322779# Ortega Lourdes, and Iberri-Shea Gina. Fundamental Issues In Language Learning. Longitudinal Research in Second Language Acquisition: Recent Trends and Future Directions. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (2005 25: 26-45) 8 Dec. 2005. URL: http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstractfromPage=online&aid=322782# Patsy M. Lightbown and Nina Spada Factors Affecting Second Language Learning. (ed) Mercer, Neil. English Language Teaching in Its Social Context. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 2000. p 28-42. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=2002532&ppg=42 Copyright 2000. Routledge. All rights reserved. Rasekh, Zohreh Eslami and Ranjbary Reza. Metacognitive Strategy Training for Vocabulary Learning. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. (TESL-EJ) Vol. 7. No. 2. A-5. September 2003. URL: http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/ej26/a5.html Read, John. How should the construct of vocabulary knowledge be defined (ed.) Bogaards, Paul. Vocabulary in a Second Language. Selection, Acquisition, and Testing. Philadelphia, PA, USA: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2004. p 209-223. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=10064637&ppg=223. Copyright 2004. John Benjamins Publishing Company. All rights reserved. Roberts, Celia. Language Acquisition Or Language Socialisation In And Through Discourse Towards a Redefinition of the Domain of SLA (ed.) Mercer, Neil. English Language Teaching in Its Social Context. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 2000. p 108-122. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=2002532&ppg=122 Copyright 2000. Routledge. All rights reserved. Richards, Jack C., Beyond Methods. (ed.) Mercer, Neil. English Language Teaching in Its Social Context. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 2000. p 167-181. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=2002532&ppg=181 Copyright 2000. Routledge. All rights reserved. Rossiter, Marian J. The Effects of Affective Strategy Training in the ESL Classroom. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (TESL-EJ). Vol. 7. No. 2. September 2003. http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/ej26/a2.html Schtz, Ricardo. Vygotsky & Language Acquisition URL: http://www.sk.com.br/sk-mthen.html Sivell, John. Second Language Teacher Education in Canada: The Development of Professional Standards. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (TESL-EJ). Vol. 9 No. 1. June 2005. URL: http://tesl-ej.org/index.html Skehan, Peter. Comprehension And Production Strategies In Language Learning. (ed.) Mercer, Neil. English Language Teaching in Its Social Context. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 2000. p 75-89. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=2002532&ppg=89 Copyright 2000. Routledge. All rights reserved. Slimani, Assia. Evaluation Of Classroom Interaction (ed.) Mercer, Neil. English Language Teaching in Its Social Context. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 2000. p 287. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=2002532&ppg=301 Copyright 2000. Routledge. All rights reserved. Stewart, Timothy and Perry, Bill. Interdisciplinary Team Teaching as a Model for Teacher Development. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (TESL-EJ). Vol. 9 No. 1. June 2005. URL: http://tesl-ej.org/index.html Swann, Joan. Recording And Transcribing Talk In Educational Settings. (ed.) Mercer, Neil. English Language Teaching in Its Social Context. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 2000. p 323-327. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=2002532&ppg=337 Copyright 2000. Routledge. All rights reserved. van Lier, Leo. Constraints And Resources In Classroom Talk: Issues Of Equality And Symmetry. (ed.) Mercer, Neil. English Language Teaching in Its Social Context. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 2000. p 90-104. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=2002532&ppg=104 Copyright 2000. Routledge. All rights reserved. Wolfersberger , Mark . L1 to L2 Writing Process and Strategy Transfer: A Look at Lower Proficiency Writers. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Vol. 7. No.2. A-6. September 2003. URL: http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/ej26/a6.html Wendt, Michael. Context, Culture and Construction: Research Implications of Theory Formation Context, Culture and Construction: Research Implications of Theory Formation in Foreign Language Methodology1 (ed.) Byram, Michael. Context and Culture in Language Teaching and Learning. Clevedon, , GBR: Multilingual Matters Limited, 2002. p 92. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/britishcouncilonline/Docid=10052002&ppg=98 Copyright 2002. Multilingual Matters Limited. All rights reserved. Yongqi Gu, Peter. Vocabulary Learning in a Second Language: Person, Task, Context and Strategies. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (TESL-EJ). Vol. 7. No. 2. A-4. September 2003. 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