The Universal Declaration of the Rights of Men and Citizen 1789 and Modern Political Thought - Essay Example

Modern Political Thought and the Universal Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen Brief History and Effects of the French Revolution France was confronted with a severe economic crisis in 1789 forcing the reigning French Monarch, King Louis XVI to call for an assembly of the Estates General composed of the Clergy, Nobility and the middle and lower classes. Through this council, the King hoped to impose another land tax that would solve the country’s financial misery. Before this period, the French Monarchy had just come from the Seven Years War and the American Revolution, one of the reasons why the country was in financial turmoil. Instead, on June 17, 1789, the Estate asserted itself, formed a National Assembly and ruled a tax suspension, taking French sovereignty into its own hands. Reforms were put in place but this resulted in divisions because the Assembly adopted a position that was against the church and declared war on nations that supported the French king. Anarchy ensued and in 1792, the National Assembly declared itself as a National Convention. It abolished the monarchy, established a French Republic and executed King Louis XVI the following year (Wilde, 2009). The first part of the Revolution was characterized by moral and physical violence. The States-General met in 1789 in Versailles but were paralyzed by the refusal of the Third Estate (the Commons) to meet separately as a distinct, inferior body. On June 17, the Commons took the crucial revolutionary step of declaring their assembly to be the National Assembly, thereby destroying the States-General. This first assertion of the sovereign authority of the nation soon inspired a popular rising in Paris, marked by the storming of the Bastille on July 14. Concurrently, urban and rural revolts occurred throughout France. Suspicions generated by the political crisis had aggravated the discontent aroused by the failure of the 1788 harvest and an exceptionally severe winter. The peasants pillaged and burned the chateaus of the aristocracy destroying the records of their manorial dues (Sydenham, 1997). The revolutionary government declared war against Great Britain in January of 1793. In Cody’s treatise, it was mentioned that what followed was the Reign of Terror where all potential enemies of the ruling faction, regardless of their age, sex and physical condition, were executed. In October of 1795, a new system, the Directory replaced the revolutionary government and the first bicameral legislature in the history of France was instituted. The parliament was composed of 500 representatives and 250 senators while executive power was granted to five directors. After four years, the Directory was succeeded by a Consulate after almost four years though the help of Napoleon Bonaparte (The Victorian Web, 1987). According to a treatise on the causes and effects of the French Revolution, between the years of 1789 and 1794, French life had changed dramatically. There were changes in the lifestyle of the people, as well as in clothes and art. The monarchies were gone, and the king no longer ruled. The National Convention abolished all feudal customs and ended all slavery. They wanted to set up free public schools, but that never came about, due to economic problems. In 1795, after the total ending of the Reign of Terror, the National Convention established another constitution. It established a new system of government called the Directory. This Directory, however, faced many problems. The legislative deputies begged and "bought" political votes, and prices rose sharply, something which the poor classes of society didnt like. Along with these problems, it still followed a foreign policy. It built the largest army in Europe during this time. This army was headed by a great military leader, Napoleon Bonaparte.  The end of the French Revolution was hastened by the seizure of power by Napoleon and his political allies. After a short period of intense consolidation, a fresh French army led by the new French First Consul Napoleon defeated Austrian General Michael Melas at the Battle of Marengo in Italy and the Austrian government sued for peace. In May 18, 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed himself emperor of France that signaled the end of the French Republic. Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès penned a new constitution—one that made no mention of human rights or liberty, instead emphasizing peace, security, and property rights. The Napoleonic Code replaced the constitution. It was a set of laws that allegedly guaranteed equality of rights under the law but in truth, favored the wealthy. Although, some people have the notion that the French Revolution was a failure, its significant achievement was that it put an end to absolute monarchy and feudalism and laid down the foundations of Republicanism in France. To many, the French Revolution is “a successful revolt of the people and the principle of sovereignty of the people as enshrined in it has become the foundation of social life in the modern world. It has also permanently established the axiom that a despotic rule is unethical. The revolution has given the principles of liberty, equality, constitutionalism and democracy (Marshall)”. For one, the Revolution united France and strengthened the power of the national state. Likewise, the ancient political structure of Europe gave way because of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. The Revolution signaled the birth of nationalism and the age of modern warfare. Although some historians view the Reign of Terror as a forerunner of modern totalitarianism, others argue that this ignores the vital role the Revolution played in establishing the precedents of such democratic institutions as elections, representative government, and constitutions. The failed attempts of the urban lower middle classes to secure economic and political gains foreshadowed the class conflicts of the 19th century. There were varied historical accounts about the French Revolution but among political philosophers, the consensus is that it exerted a considerable influence on the making of the modern world. In fact, it is widely believed that the revolution influenced French culture and social structures. The instigators of the revolution started a war that went on through the Imperial period and forced nations to gather their resources as one. Some countries like Belgium and Switzerland even introduced reforms similar to those of the revolution. National identities also became united like never before. The many and fast developing ideologies of the revolution spread across Europe through French intervention. The French Revolution had considerable influence in shaping the modern world. Although it may be an overstatement, it definitely altered the European frame of mind. Among the underlying causes of the French revolution were inequality in social structures and massive poverty. Most of the people lived close to the subsistence level made worse by the dearth of food supply. The weakness of King Louis XVI was compounded by the abuses of the aristocracy who dominated employment, blocked reforms and stopped the monarchy from raising taxes to cushion the costs of war and government expenditures. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen The French Declaration “des droits de l’homme et du citoyen”, is one of the fundamental charters of human liberties, containing the principles that inspired the French Revolution. The 17 articles, adopted between August 20 and August 26, 1789, by France’s National Assembly, served as the preamble to the Constitution of 1791. Similar documents served as the preamble to the Constitution of 1793 or Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Constitution of 1795 or Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man and the Citizen (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2010). The essential tenet of the Declaration is that all men are born free. They always remain free and have equal rights. These are the rights of liberty, private property, the inviolability of the person, and resistance to oppression. All citizens are equal before the law and possess the right to participate in legislation directly or indirectly. Likewise, no one can be arrested without a judicial order. The other important provisions are the following: Freedom of Religion and Freedom of Speech, which are within the bounds of public order and law. The document reflects the interests of the elite classes who wrote it. Property is an inviolable right that can be taken by the state only if an indemnity were given and position were opened to all citizens. It also called for a common defense, taxation for all people, a prohibition on ex post facto laws as well as property rights and the fact of eminent domain. The author of this Charter is the Marquis de Lafayette. The National Constituent Assembly adopted it on August 26, 1789 and became the initial step in establishing a constitution for France during the French Revolution. The Declaration was paramount to the transition of France from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy. The document is an example of the Age of Enlightenment that characterized individualism. It is on the same horizons as works by John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau. The Charter features the foundations of the separation of powers and checks and balances systems as espoused by the Baron de Montewquieu. The U.S. Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson, had considerable impact on the French Declaration (Chavis, 2009). The Declaration is believed to be the most encouraging effect of the French Revolution. It joined two political thoughts. One came from the Anglo-American custom of legal and constitutional guarantees of human liberties while the other stemmed from the conviction that reason should guide all human affairs. European Constitutionalists argue that the principles set forth in the Declaration of the Rights of Man have constitutional value compared with the Constitution of the French Fifth Republic of 1958 and the present Constitution of France. Many laws and regulations enacted by the state have been overturned because they did not comply with those principles as interpreted by the Constitutional Council of France. Many of the principles in the 1789 declaration have far-reaching implications. These are taxation legislation or practices that seem to make some unwarranted difference between citizens, suggestions of positive discrimination on ethnic grounds because they infringe on the principle of equality and establish categories of people that would, by birth, enjoy greater rights. Lastly, the laws deemed as discriminatory toward religions although Frances record on this matter remains a subject of global criticism. The declaration has also influenced and inspired rights-based liberal democracy throughout the world (New World Encyclopedia, 2008). A Unesco Courier editorial says that out of the idea "man as a citizen”, diffused around the world by both French and foreign contemporaries of the 1789 Revolution--Bonaparte, Jefferson, Goethe, Miranda--arose a great hope for universal fraternity. This was thwarted by theories that affirmed the preeminence of the collective spirit over individual liberty. During a long period it was betrayed by the process of colonial expansion, which substituted the notion of the civilizing mission of the West for the dream of the equality of people everywhere. Finally, the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen introduced undeniably major new rights by which we now live. It stated that all men are created equal, which would soon cancel out the horrendous idea of slavery. Over time, it also annihilated the whole concept of class, ultimately ending in the removal of titles such as nobility and of the Church. Soon after, various things including the document lessened the power of the Catholic Church. If not for the denouement the French Revolution had on society, the world we live in would be nothing less than chaos, with a corrupt economy, government, and discreditable treatment towards others (Socyberty, 2009). Political Thought and the French Revolution French political thought was molded primarily by two major revolutions, the first one being the Revolution of 1789 that was inspired by the political ideals of “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.” In turn, it motivated the proliferation of those ideas through much of the Western world. The basic ideals of the French and the American revolutions are closely related. that all men are created equal and that government should rest on the consent of the governed. Both French and American citizens are adherents to the principles and practice of freedom. We cannot discount the fact that Napoleon Bonaparte was one of those who contributed immensely to Modern French Political Thought. He was instrumental in preserving the important conquests of the French Revolution - social equality, industrial freedom, the sanction and support of the church for the state and he bestowed to France a code of laws and system of administration that have remained unchanged until the present era. Likewise, the bourgeoisie was put in place while the status of the peasant class improved considerably. In relation to this, the Republic has proven to be the form of government best adapted to the character and needs of the French people. It has effectively united them as a nation. It has shown relative endurance since its life is longer than that of both empires, two modern monarchies and three times as long as that of the present Republic (New York Times, 1910). How the Concept of the French Revolution Affected the World The French Revolution indicated the start of phenomenal variations in world history. Although the uprising occurred only in France and lasted for just twelve years, the effects were long-term and felt all over the world. The effects of the Revolution can be depicted from as sophisticated as the spread of the metric system to as paramount as the shift from absolutism to republicanism. A significant forerunner to the proliferation of the everlasting effects of the French Revolution was the Great French War from 1792 – 1815. The French Revolution is a momentous episode in modern international history because of its international impact and influences on society and thought today. Historians agree that a mix of international and domestic events ignited the revolution. France had the largest population in Europe and could not feed it adequately. The rich and middle classes were deprived of political power. The peasants were acutely aware of their situation and were less and less inclined to support the archaic and oppressive feudal system as well as the problem of ‘average money wages rose only about a third as fast as prices, and the cost of living rose most steeply for those who were living closest to subsistence level. The most immediate international effect of the French Revolution was the redrawing and transformation of the European map since the European borders were changed due to the Revolution (Aston, 2003). The more philosophical social and political effect of the French Revolution was the birth of Nationalism in France as well as neighbouring countries. The Revolution aligned with the Declaration of Rights of Man in promoting a passion that France belonged to its people and not the King of France. The people started taking great pride in their country, language, heritage and history. The opposition to the French type of nationalism in the other countries of Europe diminished. Both the Italian and German states began unification movements following Napoleons occupation. Ethnic groups within Empires began to view independence as an answer to the problems of a nation. The nation was no longer represented by a single person or monarch, but by every citizen living within its territory (Padbury). How Different Revolutions Affected the World There were major uprisings, just like the French Revolution and the American War of Independence, which ultimately changed the course of politics, culture and economics globally. Among these are the Cuban Revolution, the Great Socialist October Revolution, the Haitian Revolution and the Glorious Revolution. These revolutions happened during different periods in world history and differed in terms of how they happened, how long these took place and what the causes or motivating factors were. One common denominator is these resulted in radical changes in culture, economy and socio-political institutions. There were sweeping changes in the political scene because these revolutions brought forth new ideas and changes that are still generally practised today. Two specific examples are democracy and nationalism. The existing system that was changed as a result of this marked the birth of notable social innovations. Revolutions gave new meanings to the political ideas of people. As in the case of the French Revolution, political commotions paved the way for a more promising and progressive way of life among the citizens of the affected countries. They set free new forces, demolished old ideas and presented better assurances for the common people. To sum it up, all the new and sterling developments in the different societies and nations would have not been possible had it not been for these shocking revolutions in different parts of the world. In the same token, political philosophies were modified and changed as a result of these historic revolutions. Notwithstanding these varying and contradicting political views, the more important point is the element of change and the progress and development that went with these modifications in the history of men and nations. References Aston, B. (2004). Why is the French Revolution regarded as such an important event in modern international history? Causes and Effects of the French Revolution. 123HelpMe.com. 03 December 2010 . Chavis, J. (2009). Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: Foundation of the French Republic and Human Rights. The National Law Review Journal. US Law Firm Publications. April 3, 2009. Cody, D. (1987) The French Revolution. The Victorian Web, last modified October 25, 2010, http://www.victorianweb.org/history/hist7.html. Socyberty.com. The important effects of the French Revolution that helped shape our world today: http://socyberty.com/history/effects-of-the-frenchrevolution/#ixzz172u70Cmk. May 11, 2009. Encyclopedia Britannica (2010). Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen Encyclopedia Britannica Online. December 1, 2010. . Mayer P. (1949). Political Thought in France from the Revolution to the Fourth Republic. Routledge & Paul. London. pp. 3 - 7 Marshall, J. (ed.) The History of the French Revolution. AllSands. http://www.allsands.com/history/events/thefrenchrevol_wws_gn.htm Padbury, M. Effects of the French Revolution. www.helium.com. Sydenham, M. (1997). The French Revolution. The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Release #9. The New York Times. The French Republic: 1870 – 1910. September 4, 1910 Unesco Courier. (1989) 1789: An Idea that Changed the World. Unesco Courier Wilde, R. (2009) French Revolution1010. About.com.Guide. Riley, Philip F. "Louis XIV." Read More