Psychological Theories of Individual Development - Essay Example

Psychology has come a long way from the establishment of the first psychological clinic by Lightner Witmer at the of Pennsylvania in 1896.The pioneer practitioners were primarily concerned with learning disabilities of school children and are demarcated into careful measurements as basis of their findings rather than mental illnesses and disorders. This all changed with Sigmund Freud’s visit to Clark University in 1909 and his breakthroughs in psychoanalytic theory placing importance on psychopathology (Snyder and Lopez, 2002, p.13). Through the utilization of patients’ memories and dreams, the Austrian psychiatrist revolutionized psychotherapy. “He tried to trace current behavior to early childhood experiences including children’s sexual fantasies” (Kalat, 2008, p.24). Erik Erikson’s greatest contribution to Psychology is evidently his take on the stages of Human Development. Divided into eight stages, he argues that for every stage man has definite goals and desires to master to be able to overcome various personal conflicts. The inability to conquer these could lead to arduous consequences in the long run. His theory offers a more practical approach to dealing with psychological troubles. They are specifically founded on stimuli response from the subject. The congruence of stimuli and behavior becomes an apparent main topic for Erikson as a psychologist. Perhaps his dissimilarity lies in the perspective of change attributable to a person that he suggests. The stages, to Erikson, have particular social and emotional conflicts that lead to the paced development of the individual. The person’s inherent analysis of his life, this becomes the main focus of humanistic psychology. The newborn stage, as he suggests, is delineated to trust vs. mistrust between the infant and his parents or caretakers. This where this issue is introduced trust is established. Infancy require parental affection and constant nurturing to provide a positive grounds for human relations. The absence of these factors could lead to a future that may be ridden with the child’s inability to form bonded relationships. The main issue in adolescence is identity. This is particularly so in Western societies where this stage is vital in the formation of a person that could lead to his character throughout his life. This choice is separated between intimacy and isolation. The person may choose to be with others and commit to sharing himself or he may opt to shut out others from his life. A full lifespan gives rise to ‘middle adulthood’ and the question of generativity. This speaks of the need to produce something or to yield meaning to one’s existence. Half of a person’s life is said to be spent in this stage (Kalat, 2008, p.182). As a direct contradiction to behavioral psychology and psychoanalysis in the 1950s, the humanistic approach was developed. Practitioners believe that he may only be able understand a subject by engaging him to disclose particular events of his life. Humanistic approach assumes that a person is inherently good and determined to attain his potential. Children, parallel to Erikson’s stages of development, build up self-concept that they later on mould to having an idea of themselves and who they want to become, an ideal self. This approach “deals with consciousness, values and abstract beliefs, including spiritual experiences and the beliefs that people live and die for…personality depends on people’s beliefs and perceptions of the world” (Kalat, 2008, p.542). Psychoanalytic theory is founded on the idea of biological urges that gears the action of man due to his wanting to be satisfied. This makes fact that man is inherently selfish and driven by instincts to the actualization of his urges. This unconscious motivation is the basis of action without him necessarily being aware. This is the very foundation of the age-old psychological question of nature versus nurture. Human development is determined by biological instincts (Sigelman & Rider, 2009, p. 34). The Stage Theories of Freud and Erikson1 Freud’s Psychosexual Theory Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Stage (Age Range) Description Stage (Age Range) Description Oral stage (birth to 1 year) Libido is focused on the mouth as a source of pleasure. Obtaining oral gratification from a mother figure is critical to later development. Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year) Infants must learn to trust their caregivers to meet their needs. Responsive parenting is critical. Anal Stage (1 to 3 years) Libido is focused on the anus, and toilet training creates conflicts between the child’s biological urges and the society’s demands Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1 to 3years) Children must learn to be autonomous – to assert their wills and do things for themselves – or they will doubt their abilities. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years) Libido centers on the genitals. Resolution of the Oedipus or the Electra complex results in the identification with the same-sex parent and development of the superego. Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6 years) Preschoolers develop initiative by devising and carrying out bold plans, but they must learn not to impinge on the rights of others. Latent Period (6 to 12 years) Libido is quiet; psychic energy is invested in schoolwork and play with same-sex friends. Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 12 years) Children must master important social and academic skills and keep un with their peers; otherwise, they will feel inferior. Genital Stage (12 years and older) Puberty reawakens sexual instincts as youth seeks to establish mature sexual relationships and pursue the biological goal of reproduction Identity vs. role confusion (12 to 20 years) Adolescents ask who they are and must establish social and vocational identities; otherwise, they will remain confused about the roles they should play as adults Intimacy vs. isolation (20 to 40 years) Young adults seek to form a shared identity with another person, but may fear intimacy and experience loneliness and isolation Generativity vs. stagnation (40 to 65 years) Middle-aged adults must feel that they are producing something that will outlive them, either as parents or as workers; otherwise, they will become stagnant and self-centered. Integrity vs. despair (65 years and older Older adults must come to view their lives as meaningful to face death without worries and regrets. A plain understanding of Erikson’s work gives way to many interpretations in today’s individual personalities. The infant conflict of trust would bring forth a derivative understanding of a person’s ability to have confidence in others. This lies on basic predictability during infancy which could be achieved through consistency. For example, if the baby’s mother puts him down and cries, the mother picks him up immediately. This happens every time then the infant grows accustom to this and takes it as sense predictable. He trusts that every time he cries when his mother puts him down before being asleep he would be picked up. But if there is inconsistency as to whether or not his mother would pick him up then there is unpredictability. Erikson tells us that this may lead to trust issues in the future for the child. Also quite notable are the stages and the typical questions attributable to them. Adolescence is the search for identity, a notion not totally new at this time. Then there is the Young Adult stage which determines the marrying age and the yearning and lack thereof of an individual to maintain a prolonged relationship. Middle Adult becomes the highlight of these ages distinctively for its length. The question for each stage is the summation of the apprehensions of individuals currently in each of the stages of development. One cannot speak of Freud without mentioning the id, ego and the superego. Psychic energy is developed into personality consisting of these three concepts. The id is impulsive and centered on the attainment of immediate satisfaction much like in infancy where this is prominent. The ego is the rational side which balances out all the other components. The superego is best defined as a person’s ‘individual internalized moral standard’ (Sigelman & Rider, 2009, p. 35). Freud’s stages of development are characterized by the shifting of the focal sexual pleasure points for each stage of development. He adheres that this movement is qualifies as the sex instinct of a person varies as he ages. The five psychosexual stages of oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital emphasize the nature of development. This is the focal point of the study of psychology and the understanding of human behavior to be applied in the resolution of different disorders toward harmonious social relations. Bibliography Kalat, J 2008. Introduction to psychology, 8th edn, Thomson Wadsworth, Belmont, CA. Sigelman, C & Rider, E, Life-Span Human Development, 6th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Belmont, CA. Snyder, CR & Lopez, S (eds) 2002, Handbook of Positive Psychology, Oxford University Press, New York. Read More