A theoretical approach to understand adult development - Essay Example

A theoretical approach to understand adult development Psychological theory Psychological theory is usually thought of as a systematic set of ideas and statements about the scientific study of behavior and cognitive processes. The field of psychology thus seeks to obtain scientific information on everything we think, feel, or do. Psychology as science has four main goals: measuring and describing behavior scientifically scientifically predicting behavior modifying and controlling behavior scientifically explaining behavior scientifically Thus, psychology like any other scientific discipline demands a set of procedures for deciding as to which ideas and statements are valid and which ones are not. For a theory to be useful in the psychological world, it should also provide some significantly valid conclusions to help understand and explain the psychology of the subject. The theory as an additional advantage should also help make predictions that hold usefulness of application in the existent scientific world. A psychology theory has its beginning with certain important definitions pertinent to the subject psychology and certain assumptions. The theoretical approach constitutes of certain concepts, and forms the base and building blocks of a theory. There are many theoretical approaches available for the understanding of adult development and this includes: The classical theories of Charlotte Buhler, Erik Erikson (1959, 1963), Robert J Havighurst, Daniel Levinson - Seasons of Adulthood (1986, 1996), and Baltes - Life Span Theory. In addition, there are different schools of psychological thought and ideas that are not so much associated with one individual, but represent contributions of several expert psychologists. In the present essay, we consider the classical theories as the theoretical approach in the attempt to understand adult development. A developmental theory is required to address the questions pertinent to the reason of change in an individual. It should also tell as to why a change in one individual is different from that observed in another individual. Thus, the developmental theories perform a challenging job of reason, login, and scientific applicability to different aspects related to the individual development. The course of an individual's intellectual growth and decline over the adult years are essential in the understanding of adult development (Cross, 1981; Knowles,1980; Kummerow, 1978) by means of relevant theories. In order to address the topic with more planned approach, we find it essential to mention about the organization of pertinent theories. A developmental theory holds an assumption that there exists some end point, which is a potential improvement as compared to earlier ages. Erickson (1968, 1986; Edelstein, 1997) and Vaillant (1977) have contributed significantly to the understanding of development theory. The other important category of theory of adult change was contributed by Levinson and Pearlin and was based on the assumption of no such end point as proposed by developmental theorists. The present essay holds its preference of discussion about the ideas and work of developmental theorist as they apply to the understanding of adult development. Psychoanalytical perspective The psychological age of a person is an indicative of his or her functions in response to the environmental demands. Thus, an individual may be psychologically younger or older as compared to his age. The ability, intelligence, memory, motor skills and other important psychological virtues are not always developed equally in all individuals of the same age. A difference always exists and the reason for it is required to be answered by means of theoretical approach. The reason for this change in development can be answered by different approaches like the behavioral and social learning, humanistic, individual differences, information processing, attribution, dialectical, and psychoanalytical. The present essay holds a psychoanalytical approach for the understanding of adult development. Knowing of adult development and its probable connection with learning has presented itself as an essential area of study by the psychologists (Merriam, 1999; Perlmutter, 1992; Rice, 1992; Kastenbaum, 1993). An essential expression on stage models The focus of psychological perspective holds its unique self on an individual's internal developmental processes in interaction with the environment (Clark & Caffarella, 1999). Clark & Caffarella have made known the difference between stage models of development and models based on life events or transitions. The stage models are also called as sequential or phase models. The stage models are based on an essential assumption that development is unidirectional in nature. Thus, as per the stage model present development holds its base on some or the other past development and that there exists an endpoint (Miller, 1993). Thus, as per the stage model all human beings hold the position of active participation in their development. In addition, an active construction of knowledge is evident from their participation rather than just a passive exposure or reaction. For example, Mr. XYZ after taking a hot bath feels relief from headache. He always experiences the same or similar health benefit after taking a hot bath. He refers to internet and alternative remedies experts and finds that heat application helps in reduction in the level of pain. Thus, Mr. XYZ finds that hot bath is a comfortable practice for him in order to live health. Thus, in this case the application of hot bath as applied to his body has been researched and confirmed by him. This can be considered as a prominent contribution of his own self for his own development. Several home remedies have their origin of invention within the genius contribution of adults in their self-development. Thus, the efforts that one invests does not go waste but is substantiated by rewards in the form of self-development. We might therefore agree with the assumption of stage model that ones own active participation in a situation is essential for adult development. This is also true in the case of allergic reaction treatment. The patient is required to understand and point out the essential food ingredients that might have caused the allergic reaction. Self- monitoring and self-analyses of a situation is always essential for in-depth knowledge of the cause or consequence of any health ailment. Thus, therapies act and its action results are obvious only by the active participation of the person. This is true for almost all of the environmental aspects in connection with the human mind and body. We can therefore say that the assumption as accepted by stage model has wide area of application and acceptability on scientific basis. Another important stage model that finds its place in the understanding of adult development is that of Gould (1978). He has proposed an important theory of transformation from childhood to adult consciousness. He has presented an essential need to overcome four major false assumptions to gain the real benefit of development. He states that formation of identity takes its form between the ages of 16 and 22, when people begin to challenge the false assumptions. A false assumption that is set to revision is that the youngster starts realizing that he/she need not always belong to his/her parents and that a different world was the need of the hour. They want to be different from what their parents are and they realize that they are being correct if they demand for some essential change in their life. Thus, they start thinking of a world that is different from the one in which their parents survived for their life. The second false assumption that youngsters overcome is within the age of 22-28 years and they find that they should also opt to do things in a different way than their parents did. Thus, they start believing that results are not assured by doing things the way their parents did. In addition, if they do things the wrong way or not so correct manner then their parents shall certainly help pave a better route for them to walk on. The false assumption that life is simple and controllable and that there exists no significant contradictory forces in oneself is being ruled out by the age of 28 to 34 years. At last the fourth big false assumption of believe that there exists no evil or death in the world is overcome at the age from 35 to 45 years. The second cognitive perspective holds its focus of examination on life events and transitions. A psychological expert, Pearlin (1987) presented to the scientific community a model that anticipated life course role changes, such as change in the country of living. Other significant role changes that accompany life in its pace are the death of a family member, change in the home after marriage and development of attachment with children. There exists a significant difference in the role as performed by an individual working in the environment of one company and then in another. Pearlin is of the opinion that the support via social networks that holds its availability for the person has a crucial contribution to his development in the new setting. In addition, the skills to meet the change with due strength and maturity are also an essential step of penetration of adult development (Bee, & Bjorkland, 2000). The level of stress and its category also hold an essential place in the presentation in the situation. "The level of complexity in learning enhances with development in an individual." This is the proposal of cognitive perspective for adult development. In addition, it is important to consider that individual's construct knowledge as opposed to mere reaction to the already existent knowledge. We can therefore state that adult development is a continuous journey and each step has been essentially presented and portrayed by means of construction of knowledge. Mezirow (1990, 1991) believes that through the process of reflection, individuals often come to a point that is more inclusive, differentiated, integrated, and permeable perspective. In order to help promote the presence of critical reflection, the teachers are required to have participants to engross themselves in essential roles. In addition, a reversal in role-played can help the individuals in the expression of views (Cranton, 1994). Yet another method of promoting adult development can be of journal writing. The expression of ones own views and ideas on an observed topic adds to the development. People are most likely to show themselves in the classroom at the hour of transition (Daloz, 1986; 1999). It is also essential to mention Havinghurst (1972) suggestion on this matter of teachable moments, in which the concentration and preference of people is on the desire to learn and apply a concept. Thus, different theorists have proposed different assumptions and thoughts for the in-depth understanding of adult development. There approach though different to a significant level holds a common advantage of helping understand the phenomena of development in adult to greater depth and with superior clarity. Conclusion The need to understand adult development is essential for the development of scientific knowledge that focuses on the welfare of humankind in general. The contribution of expert psychologists in the field of adult development has been considered in brief in the present essay. The approach of the essay was that of theoretical approach and the contributions on stage model were given priority for the discussion. We hereby conclude that understanding of development in adults has gained great insight by the contribution of stage model and is therefore exercising a prominent role of application with appreciation in the field of psychology. References Bee, H., & Bjorkland, B. (2000). The Journey of Adulthood (4th ed). New York: Prentice-Hall. Clark, M., & Caffarella, R. (eds.) (2000), An Update on Adult Development Theory: New Ways of Thinking about the Life Course. (New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, No. 84.) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Cranton, P. (1994). Understanding and Promoting Transformative Learning: A Guide for Educators of Adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Cross, K. P. (1981). Adults as learners. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Daloz, L. (1986). Effective Teaching and Mentoring: Realizing the Transformational Power of Adult Learning Experiences. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Daloz, L. (1999). Mentor: Guiding the Journey of Adult Learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Edelstein, L. N. (1997). Revisiting Erikson's Views on Women's Generativity, or Erikson Didn't Understand Midlife Women. Chicago: American Psychological Association. (ED 415 473) Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the Life Cycle. New York: Norton. Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and Society. New York: Norton. Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity, Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton. Erikson, E. H., Erikson, J. M., & Kivnick, H. Q. (1986). Vital Involvement in Old Age. New York: Norton. Gould, R. (1978). Transformations: Growth and Change in Adult Life. New York: Simon & Schuster. Havinghurst, R. (1972). Developmental Tasks and Education (3rd ed.). New York: McKay. Kastenbaum, R. (ed.). (1993). Encyclopedia of Adult Development. Phoenix: Oryx Press. Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education. Revised Edition. Chicago, IL: Association Press/Follett. Kummerow, J., B. D. Sillers, and T. J. Hummel. (1978). Programming for adult development. Minneapolis, MN: Education Career Development Office, University of Minnesota, ED 159 517. Levinson, D.J. (1986). A conception of adult development. American Psychologist, 41, 3-13. Levinson, D. J., and Levinson, J. D. (1996). The Seasons of a Woman's Life. New York- Ballantine. Merriam, S. B., and Caffarella, R. S. (1999). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide. (2nd ed.) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mezirow, J. (1990). "How critical reflection triggers learning." In J. Mezirow (ed.), Fostering Critical Reflection in Adulthood (pp. 1-20). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative Dimensions of Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Miller, P. (1993). Theories of Developmental Psychology (3rd ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. Pearlin, L. (1982). "Discontinuities in the study of aging." In T. Hareven & K. Adams (eds.), Aging and Life Course Transitions: An Interdisciplinary Perspective (pp. 55-74). New York: Guilford Press. Perlmutter, M., and Hall, E. (1992). Adult Development and Aging. (2nd ed ) New York' John Wiley. Rice, F. P. (1992). Human Development: A Life-Span Approach. New York: Macmillian. Vaillant, G. (1977). Adaptation to Life. Boston: Little, Brown. Read More