Psychological and Sociological Impact of the Anthrax Attack in 2001 - Research Paper Example

Psychological and sociological impact of the Anthrax Attack In 2001 Introduction: There is a saying that nature supports the ‘survival of the fittest’. This indicates that some form of conflict is necessary to survive. This can often be seen in the animal kingdom where only the fittest will survive, others being prey as food or as opponents. A new born deer is easy prey to a carnivore. The leadership of a herd of bison is usurped through direct violent confrontation. Human societies too have had its share of violence in the form of wars and ethnic/social confrontations. But most of these activities only affected the direct stakeholders. For example, in a war the major causalities were the soldiers and not the civilian population of a region. These wars and confrontation were basically aimed at achieving political, religious or ethnic superiority and control. But as societies developed, conflict settlement became more civilized or humane in the form of democracy. Wars were settled through diplomacy rather than on the battlefield. But modern society faces a new threat in the form of terrorism whereby innocent people are targeted in order to create chaos and unrest with the ultimate aim of achieving some political or religious goal. Acts of terrorism usually inflicts some form of physical toll like death or injury on the part of the perpetuators. But other forms have evolved whereby a society (of innocent people) can be targeted to create fear, unease and chaos with minimal risk to those indulging in acts of terrorism. One of them is bioterrorism, where toxic bacteria are purposely exposed to the civilian population. This paper looks on the concept of bioterrorism with regard to the 2001 postal anthrax attack in the United States. The focus will be on the psychological and social impact of such impacts on the civilian population in the country. A review of terrorism: As can be seen from the introduction, act of terrorism has now become a fact of life in many regions. Terrorism in any form has both psychological and sociological impact of individuals and the society at large. The term has grown in importance and relevance over the years that more than hundred definitions are given to describe terrorism (Schmid & Jongman, 2005, 1). But many authors still find that a proper definition is not possible. The problem it seems is with justification of the acts or terrorism. The group that perpetuates sees it as “creation of a new and better society” (Hoffman, 2006, 4). But others, especially those at the receiving end may not view it in the same way. There are ways to settle disputes through the ballot in case of domestic issues, or through diplomacy, talks and mediation in case of international ones. But what most authors and definitions agree on is the fact that innocent victims are subject to injury, trauma, and even loss of lives and this is something that is not acceptable in modern society. According to Vazquez et al, there are two categories namely acts that is done by individuals or groups within the state or as a form of asymmetric warfare. The former, as the name suggests, involves acts by citizens and authorized residents within a country or state in order to create social and psychological fear to achieve some aim or goal. Atrocities against German Jews by the Nazi regime and acts of violence by the Irish Republican Army can be given as examples. The second category, as defined by the World Trade Organization appears to provide a real definition of terrorism whatever may be the form, origin or intent. “Terrorism as asymmetric warfare, is defined as a form of conflict in which an organized group – lacking in conventional military strength and economic power – seeks to attack the weak points inherent in relatively affluent and open societies” (Joseph & Linley eds., 2008, 63). It can be said that the anthrax attack in 2001 correctly fits the above definition. It is asymmetric in the sense that the letters were sent randomly. It was obviously sent by an organized group which did not have the military or economic power to achieve its aims. The fact that the perpetuators did not resort to an open conflict or confrontation is testimony to the fact. The mail system in any country can be seen as a trusted service and hence an ideal weak point for such terrorist acts. The United States can definitely be considered to be both and affluent and open society. This form of terrorism does not involve any personal physical risks to the terrorist organization and its members. A suicide attack as in the case of 9/11 or the terrorist attack in the 26/11 Mumbai (in India) involved loss of lives of some terrorists. But attack through mail does not entail such a risk which involves loss of lives. It should be noted that anthrax (suspected or real) mail were received in other countries like Pakistan, Kenya, Brazil and Lithuania (Combs & Slann, 2007, 12). Bioterrorism: The anthrax case studied in this paper is an example of bioterrorism. “Bioterrorism refers to the intentional release of biological agents or toxins for the purpose of harming or killing humans, animals or plants with the intent to intimidate or coerce a government or civilian population to further political or social objectives” (Interpol, 2010). According to the organization, the first casualty of the 2001 anthrax mail was an editor of a US based newspaper in September 2001. He apparently smelt and eventually inhaled a white powder that was found in an envelope. Five people lost their lives and seventeen others were taken ill due to this white powder which contained bacillus anthrax spores. The incident created such a stir and sensation that it was referred to as ‘Amerithrax’. Interpol adds that this type of terrorism is not spectacular as in the case of other attacks like bombings, suicides, or the 9/11 attacks. But it will definitely serve the purpose of creating fear and insecurity among the populace. The organization further adds that bioterrorism attacks are not usually owned up by any groups making the detection of the perpetuators all the more difficult. This in turn will add the severity of the psychological and impact on the society. The severity and seriousness of the threat is echoed in the words of the former UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan - “Our world must take bio-security much more seriously […] It would be comparatively easy for terrorists to cause mass death by using agents such as anthrax or weaponized smallpox. Let’s not wait until something has gone terribly wrong to act collectively to meet this threat” (Annan, 2005). This indicates that bioterrorism does not need too much resources in terms of personnel or finance. Any mentally unstable persons or overzealous groups/individuals can resort to it with the help of basic biotechnology. Physiological impacts of the anthrax attack: As a weapon of mass devastation, anthrax has established to be a lesser amount than others. But as a form of psychological conflict, anthrax attack keeps an insightful collision. After the event of September 11, anthrax has been debatably more influential in getting under American’s skin and promoting a sense of panic that interrupted daily activities. Liz Marlantes clearly comments that; “As a weapon of mass destruction, anthrax has so far proved to be less than effective - with just one fatality and a handful of illnesses resulting from the spate of recent cases.”(Marlantes, 2001). Physiological disorders and problems of anthrax attack have relevant role in promoting psychological impacts among the public. Physiological impacts are many and speckled and researcher can find these physiological problems lead the patients who suffered with anthrax in to the world of unending frustration and anxiety. Some of the physiological impacts have identified. Analysing the reports of doctors and healthcare professional, researcher can find that the production of deadly toxins and these toxins negatively affected the human immune system. Healthcare professionals have identified various physiological impacts of anthrax among the life of infected people. Gradual deterioration of macrophages, the input defensive cells in the human body is visible in anthrax infected people. Sean Henhan remarks;” Anthrax can infect the human body by three routes- the skin (contact with infected animals), the gastrointestinal tract (eating of contaminated meat) or through the lungs (inhalation of anthrax spores)” (Henahan, n.d.). Physiological quandaries paved the way for specific psychological issues among the people. Deterioration of human immune system badly affects physiological activities of human body. After the treatment patients have existed long term reactions and also created mental stress and anxiety. Anthrax had paved the way for the attention of researchers and healthcare professionals because of its peculiar characteristic. It’s connection with animals requires further researches and Richard M.Swiderski notices that; “This is the one variety of anthrax infection humans share with animals, which must be dying of the disease in an area of humans to be affected”(Swiderski, 2004, 201). Researchers professionals and healthcare officers have found that more than half of the fatalities had not come back to work more than a year after the attacks, all were under psychiatric concern, and previously identified symptoms ranging from unceasing cough, exhaustion, and memory problems to depression, anxiety problems, and antagonism. The news article entitled 2001 Anthrax Attacks Have Lasting Physical, Psychological Impact clearly highlights relevant psychological problems that affect the psychological status of the people who infected anthrax. “A new study shows 15 people infected with anthrax during the attacks continue to report significant health problems, psychological distress, and trouble readjusting to life at least a year after the terrorist attacks involving the U.S. Postal Service in the fall of 2001” (WebMd, 2004). Psychological symptoms are many and varied and it often continued more than five years in the life of anthrax infected people. Various physical problems such as fatigue, body pain, and overweight often forced the people to seek treatment. In their joint venture entitled Psychological responses to the new terrorism: a NATO-Russia dialogue clearly comments that; “Hospitals reported their already busy emergency rooms were filled with people anxious about anthrax, many demanding treatment” (Wessely & Krasnov (eds), 2005, 14). Symptoms of other diseases were also considered as anthrax infection and many people hide their health problems because of fear. News reports have forced the reader to think about the fact that recent use of anthrax by terrorists and the prospect of scattering anthrax for the purpose of battlefield had enlarged public’s anxieties about this harmful disease. Continuous breath problems and body pain attack the patients and finally die within a short period of one day or two after the emergence of severe breath problems. Side effects of anthrax vaccine often generate mental problems among the anthrax infected person. Severe headache, fever, and other related symptoms are often appeared after the injection. This prevents people to seek medical help after identifying symptoms. “Studies on service personal who have been vaccinated against anthrax reveal no-long term side effects for anthrax vaccines”.(National Library of Medicine, 2008, 5). The social and emotional isolation makes severe psychological problems in the life of anthrax infected people and this inferiority complex forced one to stay his privacies. After the Anthrax attack of September 2001 many people have believed that the perpetrators were the Islamic terrorists and this concept became a significant cause for creating fear and anxieties about the disease among the public. Fear about health condition and death anthrax infected persons have often subjected to lead a submissive life in society. People have linked anthrax attack to the international terrorism or Islamic extremism that resulted ethical and emotional alienation. The major cause of this issue is reported that the media and Government authorities have failed to handle this problem in proper way. Social impact of the 2001 anthrax attack: Like psychological impacts, terrorist acts can also have an impact on the social fabric of a society. “The social impact of terrorism may cause long term negative effects on people unless emergency management organizations establish effective management plans for the preparation for and response to terrorist events” (Durmaz, 2007, 311). This indicates that preparedness is an essential factor in preventing, reducing, and managing negative social impact, whatever be the type of terrorist act. It can be assumed that it included bioterrorism also. Another reason for concern with regard to the anthrax study is that it is highly infectious, has a high mortality rate, and “might cause public panic and social disruption” (Henderson 2010). It should be noted that Henderson is in charge of the Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Initiative. Three broad categories of impact can be attributed to affect a society due to terrorist attacks. They are a feeling of personal and group insecurity, loss of confidence in security agencies/government, and the psychological impact (stress) that occurs (Morag, 2004). The psychological aspect has been discussed in earlier sections of the paper. The author adds that unlike war, causalities from terrorism is very low, but its impacts as mentioned above is equal to or greater than a conflict between two nations. Because of the insecurity, people will begin to spend more on insurance (health in this instance) which will add to their social anxiety. So is the case with health as in the case of bioterrorism. The social infrastructure that supports health will be under scrutiny and stress. Habits could change and people will become suspicious of mail and other packages. The United States Postal service and its employees will come under stress, both verifying mail and also the fear of being infected. This also holds good for employees of courier companies. The first occurrence of a bioterrorist (or any other form) attack will instill fears that it could happen again. Looking at it from another angle, “as is the case with chemical and biological weapons, public and world perceptions of the impact of such attacks would initially be based on the fact that they occurred at all (Cordesman, 2002, 199). Cordesman, A.H. (2002). Terrorism, asymmetric warfare and weapons of mass destruction, Greenwood Publishing Group. The author adds that the general public would remain skeptical about even the most successful decontamination efforts by concerned authorities. He also doubts the capability of agencies in the United States to control the bacteriological threat in case a massive attack occurs. It can be said that the 2001 anthrax attack was not massive and was effectively contained once it was identified. Even so, authors Cheff, Calia and O’Neil in a Medscape article writes about this lack of capability or the confusion that ensued after the attack was confirmed. For example, there was confusion regarding the efficacy of using nasal swabs for detecting the presence of anthrax. This would confirm or clear the presence of disease. But it did not prevent the person so cleared from being infected in the future. In another instance, the authors state that “, two different hazardous material teams responded to the same call and had a public row about how to handle a potentially contaminated envelope. In addition, protocols were unclear about which organization had the authority to speak about what, due in part to jurisdictional issues, according to several people we interviewed” (Cheff, Calia & O’Neil, 2004). These are the indirect or secondary impact which can negatively affect the minds of individuals in the society. They lose confidence in the health and other authorities, not because they do not have the medical knowledge, but because of procedural lapses and faults. Media reaction also creates panic and confusion in such situations. For example many postal workers in the United States refused to get inoculated because of the confusion regarding the vaccine and also based upon the advice of their physicians (Science Daily, 2009). Many felt that since they had little chance of getting infected, getting the vaccine may have other health effect. The article adds that conflicting media reports added to the confusion. This again shows the inability of authorities to tackle bioterrorism which in turn will only increase the negative social impacts. The Science Daily article also states that that knowledge about treating the infection was limited probably due to its low incidence in the United States. This brings in two new concerns. One is that similar attacks with bacteria that are quite uncommon in the country could be a serious health hazard if an attack occurs. The other again is a lack of belief in health authorities. It can be said that the US has a strong and widespread media that covers practically the entire nation and any such news will spread quickly in the society. Another study shows that “more than 10,000 people were placed on prophylactic and, years after the attack, reports of chronic anxiety and other physical and mental health problems were reported” (Burke & Cooper (eds)., 2008, 242). It can said that this anxiety will pass on to family members, colleagues and friends to a certain extent making the figure of those affected larger. It should be noted that anthrax as a weapon of terrorism or mass destruction began nearly eighty years before the 2001 attack. But its efficacy as a weapon of terror was found by accident. “In 1979, a Soviet Union military facility developing bio-weapons experienced an accidental release of anthrax spores. The accident caused 79 cases of anthrax with 68 deaths, demonstrating the potential lethal effectiveness of anthrax aerosols” (Melnick, 2008, 11). It should be noted that research on anthrax as a weapon had begun long ago. With terror threats from various areas including Islamic fundamentalists and fanatics, the US government and its agencies apparently failed to identify the risk and take appropriate measures to manage an eventuality. The one difference here is that the perpetuators used seemingly harmless white powder to spread the virus. The need of the hour is extensive training programs for security and health agencies with regard to potential bacteriological attacks. Moreover, simple procedures like sniffing or handling any material (or powder) that is not expected during the course of business or personal life should be cautioned. Individual who find unexpected and suspicious matter in their mail or packages should isolate it and inform the concerned health and security agencies. The big fear in the minds of people and governments with regard to future attacks can be put in two words with a question mark ‘what if?’ It is seen that bioterrorism does have negative social impacts. It ranges from fear of future attacks, health issues and protection, losing faith in government and its agencies, and the stress caused by increased spending on health and insurance. Those directly affected are seen to be more impacted which in turn will affect those around, whether in their homes or workplace. Conclusion: The security aspect of the world is undergoing a paradigm shift due to increasing terrorist acts. A strong military could oppose acts of aggression by another country. But terrorism is like dealing with an invisible enemy. Apart from indulging in physical violence through bombings and suicide attacks, the perpetuators also have added a new tool to their arsenal in the form of bioterrorism. This paper discussed the psychological and social impact the anthrax attack of 2001 commonly referred to as Amerithrax. It is seen that the American public experienced both psychological and social (some can be considered to be psycho-social) impacts. These impacts include stress, insecurity, increased medical and insurance expense, lack of belief in the government and its agencies etc. It is seen that government and related agencies were ill prepared in handling such threats. While a lot of focus is given on physical attacks like bombing and other forms of attacks like suicide attacks, the concept of biological warfare as a strategy by terrorist organization were not adequately covered. It is assumed that the present regime has taken note of the fact and has taken adequate studies regarding future threats. This will help in restoring the confidence of the public and bring about a feeling of security. It will definitely help in reducing the psychological and social impact of bioterrorism should it occur in the future. Terrorism is now seen as a part of life in many regions. Preparedness, training and educating is the only way to reduce if not eliminate this new risk. References Annan, K (2005). About bioterrorism, Interpol, retrieved 26 October 2010 from http://www.interpol.int/Public/BioTerrorism/Definition.asp Burke, R.J & Cooper, C.L eds. (2008). International terrorism and threats to security, Edward Elgar Publishing. Cheff, C, Calia, J & O’Neil, K.M. (2004). Communication triage: an anthrax case study, MedScape Today, retrieved 25 October 2010 from, < http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/482309_5> Combs, C.C & Slann, M.W. (2007). 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