Genetic Engineering: Processes, Applications and Ethical Issues - Essay Example

Genetic Engineering- Processes, Applications and Ethical Issues Introduction Genetic engineering is the concept and practice of reorganizing or restructuring the genetic structure of a chromosome, at molecular levels, and often includes genetic manipulation like in gene cloning, gene transfer or therapy. In 1973 genetic engineering took a leap forward with the invention of a process called gene splicing. Here a gene could be cut into small fragments, and a fragment from another gene having a different make up, can be inserted between the cut fragments, and then reattached together to form a completely new gene. There are many more such processes in genetic engineering that have brought about a revolutionary change in the field of human and animal biology. Almost all genetic engineering processes aim to make life easier, for those who suffer from genetic disorders. Some processes like genetic screening, even aim to recognize or diagnose disorders at an early stage, and even before the problems actually start showing their symptoms. Such early diagnoses would definitely help to prevent the disorder from reaching serious and debilitating conditions, thus saving lives. Gene therapy promises to replace the defective genes by normal and functional genes, thus bringing in a new hope for patients with no treatments available as such. However there is a dark side to all these bright envisions. Genes or chromosomes form the basic components of life, and scientists who work on genetic engineering are working with ‘life’ itself. Cloning which can create new organisms from a single DNA fragment makes a scientist equivalent to almost ‘God’, where the former is also creating new lives. It is here where one needs to have supreme control and not cross certain limits, or else what we saw in the science thriller movie’ “Boys from Brazil’, where the Nazis procreate 94 clones of Hitler to bring back the ‘Third Reich’, would not remain a science fiction anymore, and may become a distinct reality, if we are not careful. The reproduction of humans and animals using artificial methods IVF, AI and embryo transplantation - Artificial insemination (AI), as defined by Nabor-Neri “artificial insemination is an impregnation not by means of natural intercourse, but by means of mechanical, artificial aids such as injecting the semen or sperm directly in to the female sex organ by the use of a tuberculin syringe” (Nabor-Nery, 81). This process is used as assisted reproductive techniques to impregnate the female partner where there is a case of fertility problems of the male partner, and also in cases where there are is no male partner. Here the sperms may be collected from the husband (AIH or AI husband) or male partner (homologous insemination or also referred as assisted insemination) or it may be taken from the sperm bank (AID or AI donor- heterologous insemination). Freshly ejected sperm from the male partner, or sperm from the sperm bank that has been frozen and thawed under scientifically controlled mechanism, are specifically used for the AI procedure. The sperms may be placed by artificial means in the cervix known as intracervical insemination or ICI or may be placed in the uterus known as intrauterine insemination or IUI. The female is closely observed for her menstrual cycle, and when her ovum is released the sperms are inserted into the vagina by a syringe without a needle or by using a long tube attached to the end of the syringe, the sperms are deposited deep into the vagina. The woman then has to lie down for some time to avoid seepage of the sperms, and allow fertilization to occur. In another method a conception device known as the cervical cap is also used for the process of fertilization. Another method in practice is to use medically ‘washed’ sperms, which can be directly inserted into the uterus of the female counterpart. IVF or in-vitro fertilization is used when other assisted reproductive methods have not worked. It is defined by Peschke “as the fusion of human reproductive cells in an extra corporeal way” (cited in Nabor-Nery, 81). Here the female’s ovulation is controlled by hormonal medications, and when ovulation occurs, the egg is surgically removed from the ovaries and fertilized with the male sperm in a fluid medium, within a glass container. After the fertilization takes place, the fertilized egg is transferred back to the woman’s uterus for a normal and successful pregnancy. Embryo transplantation involves the transplantation of in-vitro fertilized eggs in the uterus of a recipient female body. This technique is mainly applied to animals in the dairy industry and in pigs, where the eggs from a super ovulated female is transplanted in the uterus of another recipient female. In humans this is done to help women with reproductive disorders to have children of their own. This process involves receiving healthy embryos from the donor female which then undergoes in-vitro fertilization, after which it is transplanted into the body of the recipient female who carries it to its full term. Applications: All the above three processes are used when a couple is facing reproductive problems and cannot have children biologically. Various medical problems in men like oligospermia (low sperm count), asospermia (zero sperm count) or impotency arising from medical conditions like diabetes, and in women with no ovulation, or defective cervix or uterus, or vaginal incompatibility to sperms, may force them to go for these methods. These are revolutionary processes that have helped many women to conceive and have children of their own. Ethical issues: However there are certain ethical issues, mainly arising from religious contexts, which may prove to be a barrier to people trying to have children by the above mentioned artificial means. AI or IVF between the husband’s sperms and wife’s eggs in most cases do not raise ethical questions. Ethical questions arise when there is a third party or the donor in question. This situation has been dubbed by Catholic Churches as akin to committing adultery, and being immoral, and detrimental to society. The Church also advises not go for ‘selective breeding’ of children, and not to set up sperm or ova banks for such purposes. Various legal problems regarding who is the actual father may arise along with other complications, since the donor name has to be kept secret. Law recognizes the donor as the natural father, yet the papers will carry the husband’s name as father, leading to legal dilemma. It is also often surmised that a child from a third party donor may lead to non connection between the non-donor father and child, leading to psychological problems for both. The concept of taking sperms from a sperm bank has also become a big social issue recently, and indeed presents a worrying picture. With many women opting for AI nowadays, it may be that a single sperm donor may have many children with different women. Since the sperm donor is kept anonymous, incestuous marriages may take place between siblings from the same donor, or in worst possible scenario, the donor may marry his daughter unknowingly. As an author claims “there can be little doubt that the increasing production of children by artificial insemination from unknown donors enhances the possibilities of incestuous marriages and incestuous relationships” (cited in Smith, 133). Thus IVF and AI with a third party sperm donor do indeed present certain legal and social problems that may arise later in the future when the child is an adult. However in cases where the husband is indeed unable to produce sperms, and the couple for some reason cannot go for adoption, and also in cases that deal with gay partners, this may be the only way to have a child of their own. Every woman does indeed have the right to become a mother, and if AI or IVF is the only way to get there, should be no questions raised as to her morality. As long as the couple are all right with the idea of having a third party donor, there should be no doubt but to go ahead and have a child. Patenting of DNA in humans and animals: Patenting, under the US laws are sanctioned by the Patent and Trademark Office of the Department of Commerce. Products to be patented are judged according to their usefulness, their novelty, and whether there is any unique improvement made on the product. Natural products in raw form are generally not patented, and in case of DNA’s, they have to be isolated or modified genetically or have to be presented in a pure form, to get a patent. For DNA patenting “In terms of genetics, inventors must  (1) identify novel genetic sequences,  (2) specify the sequences product,  (3) specify how the product functions in nature --ie, its use  (4) enable one skilled in the field to use the sequence for its stated purpose” ( Human Genome Project, Genetics and Patenting). Application: Patenting is a mean for protecting so called ‘intellectual property’. “Patenting provides a strategy for protecting inventions without secrecy. A patent grants the right to exclude others from making, using, and selling the invention for a limited term, 20 years from application filing date in most of the world. To get a patent, an inventor must disclose the invention fully so as to enable others to make and use it” (Human Genome Project Information, Genetics and Patenting). Thus patenting, if seen in the correct perspective, is rewarding and a positive reinforcement for researchers working in this line of genetic engineering. Ethical issues: However in recent times patenting of DNA in humans and animals has come under the scanner, owing to the disparity in number of claims and the actual scope in this field. Proponents of the gene patenting claim, that the reward and the associated financial gains motivate a researcher to go further ahead with their work. The competitors in this line cannot use the product without a license, and by giving patents useless duplication of work can also be avoided. The invented material is open to all without any need for secrecy. Those opposing patenting say that if fragmented and uncharacterized c-DNA’s are patented, this will lead to rewards going to people who all make chance discoveries, while those who actually work to find out the biological characteristics will be left unrewarded. Patents and their high associated costs would deter others from working with those materials, towards producing therapeutic products. Product development would also be affected if patent stacking is allowed. This would result in large biotech private companies taking over the genetic markets. The main ethical issue that is creating dissension, is the question that, how can one get to own a part of life and nature? Patent holders are getting right to own DNA fragments, the very constituent of life. It is against all ethics to own life as in part organisms or full organisms, as their properties. This is the core issue, which all those who stand against patenting of gene in any form, are fighting for. Cloning in animals and humans Cloning biologically refers to exact duplication of organisms (genetically identical) that occur in nature, when asexual reproduction takes place in bacteria, viruses and also in some plants and animals. Researchers in the field of biotechnology however have created a revolution in the life science studies when they created complete organisms from one DNA fragment, using the cloning process. Applications: There are three types of cloning that are in practice today. These are molecular cloning, where the cloning is used to make many copies of a certain specified DNA sequence, cellular cloning, where a group of cells are produced from one single cell, and the last type, which has created immense controversy, is the reproductive cloning or artificial cloning of organisms which can produce complete animals. There are three ways to clone artificially. These are the somatic cell nuclear transfer method, embryo splitting method and chromatin transfer method. The somatic cell nuclear method was used to create the first ever animal cloned, that is, Dolly the sheep. Here the nucleus, which contains the genetic material, is removed from any part of the body and it forms the donor cell. Another cell, preferably an egg cell since it grows fast, is taken and its nucleus removed. The nucleus from the donor cell is then taken and inserted in its place. Various stimulants are used on the egg cell with the new nucleus, to make it grow in a similar method as it would have grown after natural fertilization. After five days when a blastomere forms, it is inserted inside the body of a female to complete its normal term. Embryo splitting can be done with microscopic surgery under similar conditions as seen in nature that produces twins naturally. It is used for embryo and animal cloning to produce genetically identical clones which are mainly used for studying human development and to treat various diseases. In the chromatin transfer method, all problems faced in the somatic cell nuclear method will supposedly be removed. This new method will first treat the donor cells and remove molecules that cause cell differentiation, before removing the nucleus from it. Various researches are going on in all the above three methods, and many discoveries have been made. “In the past two years, scientists have created pigs with human blood, fused rabbit eggs with human DNA and injected human stem cells to make paralyzed mice walk”(Associated Press, Scientists create animals that are part-human). Ethical considerations: DNA cloning to produce humans and animals is a hugely controversial topic. The proponents of DNA cloning, put forward the theories that it is necessary to go forward with research work in this line so that 1. It is possible for couples who have reproductive problems, especially the male partner, can have children of their own (biologically related), instead of having to take sperm cells from an anonymous donor. 2. Gene cloning would allow couples with known genetic defects, to have children who will not inherit the genetic disorders from their parents. 3. Cloning would allow patients to get ‘rejection proof’ transplant donors. 4. Cloning can be used to bring back loved ones who are dying. 5. To create individuals who are geniuses, beautiful, talented, or in other words ‘perfect individuals’. There has been strong opposition to human cloning, and proponents against cloning have specially warned against the misuse of creating ‘cloned children’ to get ‘rejection proof’ transplant donors or cloning to have perfect and healthy children. As The Presidents Council tell us “These questions of the ethics of research – particularly the issue of physical safety – point clearly to the conclusion that cloning-to-produce-children is unacceptable. In reaching this conclusion, we join the National Bioethics Advisory Commission and the National Academy of Sciences. But we go beyond the findings of those distinguished bodies in also pointing to the dangers that will always be inherent in the very process of trying to make cloning-to-produce-children safer. On this ground, we conclude that the problem of safety is not a temporary ethical concern. It is rather an enduring moral concern that might not be surmountable and should thus preclude work toward the development of cloning techniques to produce children. In light of the risks and other ethical concerns raised by this form of human experimentation, we therefore conclude that cloning-to-produce-children should not be attempted” (The Presidents Council on Bioethics, human cloning and human dignity: an ethical inquiry). The Catholic Church and almost all other religious groups have dubbed cloning as unethical, immoral and an act of sin. The congregation of the doctrine of faith, 1987, Vatican document, Donum Vitae 1, 6 says “cloning or parthenogenesis are to be considered contrary to the moral law, since they are in opposition to the dignity both of human procreation and of the conjugal union” (Nabor-Nari, 85). Pope John Paul II in 1997 also warned against taking God’s laws on life into one’s own hands. One philosopher is also known to be have said “cloning shows itself to be a major violation of our given nature as embodied gendered, and engendering beings— and of the social relations built on this natural ground” ( Report of the Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs of the American Medical Association, 6). Looking at both sides of the argument, we can safely conclude that until DNA cloning can prove to really worthwhile both scientifically and socially, without violating and endangering lives, till then it is best not to work on human cloning. Genetic Screening in Humans “The national Academy of Sciences (NAS) defines genetic screening as the systematic search of populations for persons with latent, early, or a symptomatic disease… genetic screening, the systematic search for persons with a particular genotype in a defined population serves as an important adjunct of modern preventive medicine. Such screening has the potential to lessen the devastating impact of genetic disease. The usual purpose is to identify persons whose genotype places them or their offspring at risk for a genetic disease” (Saha, Human Genetic Screening).  So screening is done to recognize genetic disorders and to recognize people who along with their offspring are at risk from such gene disorders. There are five main types of gene screening namely, parental screening, carrier screening, newborn screening, forensic screening and susceptibility screening. Applications: Parental screening first started in 1966 and is mainly used to find out whether the unborn child is suffering from any known and identifiable genetic disorders. This procedure helps doctors to diagnose disorders or traits that can be identified prenatally, and pre-implantation embryo testing would ensure that only those embryos that are free of any such traits, be planted in the uterus. Carrier screening is done to diagnose people with gene defects or traits that may cause them future problems, or may be carried forward to their offspring. Diseases like Huntington’s disease, muscular dystrophy, Tay-Sachs disease, sickle cell anemia and hemophilia can be diagnosed with screening. New born screening involves checking for genetic disorders in new born babies and if any such defects are indeed detected, then to start treatment early so as to avoid maximum damage. Forensic screening is useful to pin down criminals from evidences collected from a crime scenario. Susceptibility screening is applied in cases where screening is necessary to check an entire population for genetic susceptibilities, where there has been some sort environmental hazard near where they reside or work. Ethical considerations: Genetic screening is very important as many genetic disorders can be detected at an early stage, or even before the disorder can manifest itself into symptoms. Proper treatment at an early stage can limit the amount of damage done, thus saving lives. However, there are certain issues that can create controversies, as Saha points out “a series of ethical and social dilemmas are arising due to genetic screening. Any genetic disorder of a fetus clearly can influence abortion, which is a broadly discussed issue for different religion. Genetic screening will also be used for discrimination against by health insurance and employers. To ensure the benefits of genetic screening the pitfalls should be eliminated. Genetic screening guidelines should be established governing its aim, limitations, scope and ethical aspects of a particular population. Data storage and registration should be protected properly” (Saha, human genetic screening). Gene therapy in humans “This is a technique whereby the absent or faulty gene is replaced by a working gene, so that the body can make the correct enzyme or protein and consequently eliminate the root cause of the disease” (Gene Therapy – An Overview). This technology is still in its nascent stage and further research work is going on in this field. Applications: Gene therapy is an important procedure that can be followed to cure many disorders that originate from defects of the chromosome. Many diseases like Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, where due to malfunctioning of genes, a single enzyme is not produced in the body. This leads to a bizarre condition where the patient starts to mutilate his own body, like the constant chewing of lips and fingers. The correct and normal version of the defective gene has been cloned, and if the rectified gene can be placed within the patient’s body, then the disease should be controlled. Similarly for phenylketonuria (PKU), a disease seen in children that affects the liver. If the defective gene could be replaced by the cloned normal genes, then the person would be able to lead a normal life. The best part of the gene therapy treatment is that the normal genes need to be placed in one organ only. Ethical considerations: though not much has been done in this line, yet proponents of this technology point out the benefits that gene therapy can bring about. If normal cloned genes can replace the defective genes, then genetic disorders can be brought under our control and rectified very easily. However here again questions arise, as to whether, changing and modifying genes may lead to man’s quest for producing only ‘perfect human beings’. Scientists may not know when and where to stop, and the process according to the slippery slope argument, may move towards more than what had been ever anticipated. Gene therapy as a technology may appear to be very attractive but in reality may be a little too dangerous to handle. The transfer of genes from one species to another in animals Transfer of genes; refer to insertion of completely unrelated DNA into a body by using a vector. Here the genetic makeup and expression are completely changed, owing to the introduction of unrelated DNA substance, and this process is also aimed to cure genetic disorders and other multi factorial problems. Applications: There are different reasons for doing gene transfer. The foremost reason is, the treatment of diseases using gene transfer, and supplying patients with therapeutic genes. “There are also different ways to transfer genes. Some of these methods involve the use of a vector such as a virus that has been specifically modified so it can take the gene along with it when it enters the cell” (Definition of Gene Transfer). This technique is still in its nascent stages and further research work needs to be done. There are two ways to conduct a gene transfer. These are the germline gene transfer and the somatic gene transfer. Germline gene transfer involves the germ cells, that is, egg or sperm cells while the somatic gene transfer target body cells. As an author tells us “In germline gene transfer, the parents egg and sperm cells are changed with the goal of passing on the changes to their offspring. Germline gene transfer is not being actively investigated, at least in larger animals and humans, although a great deal of discussion is being conducted about its value and desirability”( National Human Genome Research Institute, Germline Gene Transfer). Ethical considerations: As in all genetic issues, here again the boundaries of gene transfer are not known and thus involve risks. “Thus, both kinds of studies - germline gene transfer at the gamete and zygote stages - have significant risks. In cases in which the gene has failed to be introduced or fails to be activated, the resulting child would likely be no worse off than he or she would have been without the attempted gene transfer. However, those with partial or multiple copies of a gene could be in significantly worse condition. The problems resulting from errors caused by the gene insertion could be severe - even lethal - or they might not be evident until well after the child has been born, perhaps even well into adulthood, when the errors could be passed on to future generations. For these reasons, given the limits of current technology, germline gene transfer has been considered ethically impermissible” ( National Human Genome Research Institute, Germline Gene Transfer). Since in germ line gene transfers, not only the individual is affected but also the future generations may be affected, so before any such transfers can be done, there should be a thorough study of the patient, specially regards the immune and nervous system. There should strict guidelines made by the government and the medical board, and the scientists should strictly adhere to these norms and guidelines. Conclusion Genetic engineering is an extremely attractive field to research on, and also extremely beneficial to mankind, if it is properly used and manipulated, under certain clear guidelines. Removing all genetic disorders and saving lives of so many people, is indeed commendable but one has to be very careful when working with chromosomes which form the very essence of life. One wrong step and an annihilation of mankind may also not be far off Works Cited Associated Press. Scientists create animals that are part-human. Msnbc- Health- Cloning And Stem cells. 29th April 2005. Web. 11th March 2010. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7681252/ Gene Therapy- An Overview. Gene therapy. Biotechnology in Perspective." Washington, D.C.: Biotechnology Industry Organization, 1990. Web. 11th March 2010. http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BA/Gene_Therapy_Overview.php Human Genome Project Information. Genetics and Patenting. 16th September 2008. Web. 11th March 2010. http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/patents.shtml#4 MedicineNet.com. Definition of gene transfer. May 2000. Web. 11th March 2010. http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=13099 Nabor-Nery, M. Ethics. Quezon City: Goodwill Trading Co., Inc., 2003. Print. National Human Genome Research Institute. Germline Gene Transfer. March 2006. Web. 11th March 2010. http://www.genome.gov/10004764 Report of the Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs of the American Medical Association. June 1999. Web. 11th March 2010. http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/369/report98.pdf Saha, M. Human Genetic Screening. 1998. Web. 11th March 2010. http://www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/~mcclean/plsc431/students98/saha.htm Smith, G. Through a test tube darkly: artificial insemination and the law. Jan 2009. Web. 11th March 2010. http://faculty.law.miami.edu/mcoombs/documents/Smith.AIHistory.Eugenics.pdf The Presidents Council on Bioethics. Human Cloning and Human Dignity- An Ethical Inquiry. Chapter five. July 2002. Web. 11th March 2010. http://www.bioethics.gov/reports/cloningreport/children.html Read More