Ethical Implications of a Biological Issue: Behaviour Genetics - Essay Example

Ethical Implications of a Biological Issue - Behaviour Genetics Topic: The essay is on the ethical implications of a biological issue that has beenin the news in the last 12 months. The focus here is on behaviour genetics research and the ethical implications of using genetics for changes in behavioural attributes in organisms. Abstract: This is a discussion on the issues dealing with behaviour genetics and ethics that has been a major part of the news in recent months. Several areas of the arguments would deal with the genetics and behavioural changes, whether behaviour is species specific, whether behavioural changes relate to changes in biological structures and processes and the evolutionary history or DNA sequencing that are related to behavioural genetics. The issues of behaviour genetics and behavioural changes in response to biological structures for scientific progress are discussed with opposing arguments presented by those who are against behavioural genetics research. The ethical implications of such research are also discussed. Introduction Behaviour genetics is a complex issue and deals with rational arguments on how behaviour should be changed in accordance with the needs, genetically or otherwise. Behaviour is often considered as species specific and behaviour changes are in response to alterations in biological processes and structures. However it has to be kept in mind that certain human behaviour tends to run in families which implies a strong genetic characteristic of behaviour. The issues of behaviour genetics include: Defining the behaviour in question such as whether intelligence could help tackle certain daily problems. Defining should be followed by measuring acceptable behaviour in terms of validity and reliability Behaviour involve the contribution of multiple genes and this can complicate possible of a genetic analysis of behaviour Studies of genes and behaviour include analysis of families and populations for identification of traits within a population. This helps in determining the degree or extent of heritability. Behaviour is often considered as species specific and certain behaviours help in differentiating closely related species. Behaviours could be reproduced and behaviour genetics help in identifying the genes that produce common traits and characteristics. The fact that behaviours are largely dependent on genes could be exemplified using the case of behaviour changes with alterations in biological processes and structures. For instance drugs can alter brain chemistry and behavioural manifestations are changed with mental illness or brain injury (CNN, 2000). Certain behaviours would be characteristics of not just certain species but also of certain families and certain members of a family would show similar or related behaviour traits. Behaviour is also an evolutionary phenomenon that seems to persist across related species and there is very little difference in DNA sequences that form the primary basis of behavioural differences. The main reasons for which selective breeding and genetic engineering are carried out would be profitability although improving the lot of future generations could be one of the reasons for genetic engineering as only the desired attributes are emphasised. Genetic engineering could solve the ethical issues of using behavioural changes and responses by creating traits in organisms that are mainly beneficial for society although this may not be practically possible as multiple genes can lead to a particular behaviour and genes may cause multiple behavioural traits, all of which may not even be socially acceptable (Byrne, 2004, Plomin et al, 2002). Also, creating behavioural changes in organisms through genetic engineering can lead to negative traits as well such as criminal behaviour and this could be itself an ethical issue and would bring out major debates. It is essential to understand the implications of behavioural genetics in today's society. What would be the main reasons for such research and how do research on the genetic aspects of behaviour help in explaining physical and psychological behaviours such as impulsivity, homosexuality, criminal behaviour, aggression, nurturing and other emotions The behaviour genetic determinism is a scientific focus that emphasises that genes remain the most important factor in determining human behaviour. However behaviour genetics research could add fuel to the already existing nature nurture debate (Walker et al, 2005). It would be interesting to question whether all behaviours are genetically determined and inbred or whether the environment plays an equally significant role in shaping behaviour of individuals. The nature vs nurture controversy is thus a case which highlights the importance of understanding whether behaviours are completely genetically determined or exist in the context of environmental influences. The genetic analysis of traits such as aggression, intelligence, criminality, homosexuality etc may have social and legal implications and usually trigger wide social and political as well as ethical debates (Barbour, 2002). The more focused we are on determining behaviour in terms of genes, the more likely we are to understand how genes affect negative or deviant behaviours such as criminality and homosexuality (Plomin, 2000). What however would be the social consequences of genetic diagnoses of traits such as intelligence, and criminal behaviour Is it possible that if we discover a gene for criminality or homosexuality and find it in an individual, all social and legal judgments will work against him Would then criminality or homosexuality be considered a disorder or a disease or simply a defective genetic condition that need to be cured or changed Is it possible that once we have determined the genetic cause of deviant or criminal behaviour, parents will be reluctant to give birth to such babies, fearing deviance in their children In this context it would be essential to understand what would be the scientific obstacles to correlating a genetic endowment of an individual with behaviour. Defining a specific behaviour whether criminality or mental illness would be related to specific genetic conditions which would be rather difficult unless all the genetic characteristics are laid out and this is not practical. Identifying and excluding possible causes of a behavioural condition would involve identifying certain genetic traits. Genetic and behavioural research tends to involve certain strong truths about behavioural manifestations that seem to have social, legal, ethical and political dimensions (Plomin, 2000; Barbour, 2002). However discoveries and implications of behavioural research should always be challenged for more scientific proofs. Genes tend to influence behaviour in a definite way as genetic behaviour research would specify however it is possible through genetic research to understand which genes would be responsible for which corresponding behaviour, Would this then have implications for social changes, and social debates for that matter Would knowing that a specific gene identified for criminality exists in a baby lead to controversies on whether the baby should be allowed to be born or to live How does behaviour genetics help in tackling or preventing criminal behaviour deliberately Would this be ethical at all considering the fact that it is not completely known whether genetic research could lead to misleading information as several genes may be responsible for a single kind of behaviour instead of one single gene identified Behaviours are complex traits involving multiple genes and usually these genes could be in turn affected by a number of factors. Thus judging a person solely on the basis of the genes could be misleading and detrimental for society. This factor may however be overlooked by media which tends to hype scientific discoveries so certain individuals or traits are solely judged on the basis of whether these traits are present in the individuals rather that on the manifestation which could be related to several factors (Sherman et al, 1997). Gene functions and manifestations could be misleading to the public and also for scientific research and calls for major ethical debates. According to an example, a study published in 1999 claimed that expression of a particular gene in rodents led to enhanced learning capacity in the organisms. The press referred to this gene as "the learning gene" or the "smart gene" although they didn't mention that the enhancement in learning observed in the study were only short-term, lasting for a few hours or few days. Thus certain gene expressions or attributes are exaggerated by the media or at times by the scientific community and this may lead to several debates on whether genes alone can explain behaviour or whether we need other factors Usually a variety of genetic and environmental factors would be involved in the development of any trait although possessing a genetic variant wouldn't necessarily mean that a particular trait will develop in an individual (Plomin, 2000). This may have wide implications for social science research as possessing a criminal trait gene may not necessarily imply that the individual will definitely become a criminal. The presence of other genetic factors or even environmental factors could enhance or repress the manifestation of traits. The protein encoded by a gene usually tends to affect its ability to carry out the normal cellular functions and affects its manifestation of traits. Thus the manifestation of a genetic trait is dependent on several factors, both genetic and environmental and thus it could not be said that the presence of criminal genetic trait could lead to criminal behaviour. However it is also true that propensity being high in some individuals who tend to show the trait, the environmental conditions and other genetic factors may trigger such behaviour. Alcabes (2006) examined the implications of race in genetic research as race seems to occupy a central place in the sciences and in research of behaviour. Individual behaviour is usually seen as determinant of increased risks of disease although connections between behaviour and disease have been mainly used to strengthen racial discrimination. Genetics however tends to provide a mechanism by which biological determinants are identified that are more individualistic rather than racial. This may have social implications in the sense that certain behaviours would be considered not part of race but part of genetic heredity. Society can thus ascribe differences in occurrences of diseases or maladjusted behaviour in terms of the genetic patterns and in this way certain social discriminations could be avoided although this may increase other types of discrimination. Criminality would be closely associated with the concept of responsible action and Barnes (2002) studied how studies on human behavioural patterns as 'emerging from genetics, genomics and the new human biotechnology should be related to accounts in which human identify themselves as responsible agents, capable of choice, who can act freely and voluntarily' (Barnes, 2002, p.293). Thus how would behaviour genetics help in bringing about a balance between determinism and free choice Scientific discourses on genetics tend to articulate conflicting theories although there may be apparent differences in genetic theories of determinism and everyday understanding of free will in behaviour. However, as Barnes points out, these debates may not be completely incompatible and some form of dependence on both could explain the true nature of human behaviour whereas genetics, environment and free will tend to play equally important roles. Savulescu et al (2006) discussed the implications of behavioural genetic research with regard to criminality and criminal behaviour. The research on criminal behaviour would raise ethical questions although scientific research reveals, according to the authors, that criminal behaviour may be predicted by genetics in some families. If it is known that children of certain families will carry the gene the criminality, would be ethically viable to intervene in the development of the children to reduce or prevent criminal tendencies from taking full shape Is any kind of intervention on supposed criminal behaviour as identified through genes justifiable Savulescu et al (2006) considered that avoiding harm to such genetically prone individuals would be a major concern although intervention could be related to genetic selection rather than genetic enhancement. Morals problems would be related to whether it would be viable or justified to have children showing genetic propensity o criminal behaviour. The prospects of social discrimination of such children could also be other social implications of such research. In this study, the focus has been on the regulatory and sociological implications of behavioural genetics considering both the ethical and political dimensions and the role of governments, scientists and human rights group in tackling issues of behavioural genetic research. The tensions between human rights activists and scientists as well as governments are seen and the various political, legal, social and ethical issues of behaviour genetics have been discussed considering the ethics of research and the benefits that this could bring to mankind. Some of these could be related to identifying certain behavioural traits that can be harmful for society or understanding deviance and why individuals differ from each other in their sexual or social orientations. This could help provide better understanding and shed light on how far genes would be responsible for certain behavioural traits manifested in individuals. Bibliography Alcabes, Philip 2006, The risky gene: epidemiology and the evolution of race Patterns of Prejudice, Volume 40, Numbers 4-5, -5/September-"December pp. 413-425(13) Barbour V. 2002, Ethical guidence given on genetics of normal human behaviour Lancet Neurology, Volume 1,Number 7, 1 November pp. 398-398(1) BARNES B. 2002 Genes, agents and the institution of responsible action New Genetics & Society, Volume 21,Number 3, 1 January pp. 292-302(11) Byrne, Brian 2004, Special issue: Behaviour genetics Australian Journal of Psychology, Volume 56,Number 2, September 01, pp. 63-64(2) Cloninger, Robert 1999, A new conceptual paradigm from genetics and psychobiology for the science of mental health Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, Volume 33,Number 2, April pp. 174-186(13) CNN , July 28, 2000 Caution urged for brain research on violence Web posted at: 5:22 p.m. EDT (2122 GMT) http://archives.cnn.com/2000/HEALTH/07/28/violent.brains/index.html Hamer Dean H. and Copeland. Peter (1999) Living With Our Genes: Why They Matter More Than You Think by 368 pp. Plomin Robert (Editor), Defries, John C. McClearn, Gerald E. McGuffin. Peter (2000) Behavioral Genetics 4th edition, 449 pp. Plomin, Robert Defries,John C. Craig, Ian and McGuffin, Peter eds., and Kagan.(Jerome 2002) Behavioral Genetics in the Postgenomic Era,608 pp. Plomin R. 2000, Behavioural genetics in the 21st century International Journal of Behavioral Development, Volume 24,Number 1, 1 March pp. 30-34(5) Rutter, Michael;Kim-Cohen, Julia;Maughan, Barbara 2006, Continuities and discontinuities in psychopathology between childhood and adult life Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, Volume 47, Numbers 3-4, March/April pp. 276-295(20) Sherman,Stephanie L. DeFries,John C. Gottesman,Irving I. Loehlin, John C. Meyer, Joanne M. Pelias, Mary Z. Rice, John and Waldman Irwin (1997) BEHAVIORAL GENETICS '97: ASHG STATEMENT Recent Developments in Human Behavioral Genetics: Past Accomplishments and Future Directions Am. J. Hum. Genet. 60:1265---1275 SAVULESCU, JULIAN;HEMSLEY, MELANIE;NEWSON, AINSLEY;FODDY, BENNETT 2006, Behavioural Genetics: Why Eugenic Selection is Preferable to Enhancement Journal of Applied Philosophy, Volume 23,Number 2, May pp. 157-171(15) Walker, Sheila;Plomin, Robert 2005, The Nature-Nurture Question: Teachers' perceptions of how genes and the environment influence educationally relevant behaviour Educational Psychology, Volume 25,Number 5, October pp. 509-516(8) White V.M.;Hopper J.L.;Wearing A.J.;Hill D.J. 2003, The role of genes in tobacco smoking during adolescence and young adulthood: a multivariate behaviour genetic investigation Addiction, Volume 98,Number 8, August pp. 1087-1100(14) Williams N. 2002, Genes in behaviour scrutiny Current Biology, Volume 12,Number 21, 29 October pp. 711-712(2) Wilkie A.O.M. 2001, Genetic Prediction: What are the Limits Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Volume 32,Number 4, December pp. 619-633(15) Read More