Organizations Dealing with the Complex Issues Affecting Their Smooth Running - Essay Example

Impact of gender inequalities, from an organisational sociology perspective, has sought immense debate and research over the decades. These researches revealed a myriad of outcomes and consequences related to gender inequalities, and in different aspects related to career, growth, income levels, roles and responsibilities of both males and females. Sociological constructs based on theories have also helped in understanding these results. Interestingly, the researches and theories have indicated a complex relationship, often producing contradicting results. This discussion implies to understand impact of sociological constructs from a gender perspective in organizational contexts based on various researches and studies. It also explores methods adopted by organizations to deal with sociological implications of gender inequalities. Further, recommendations have been proposed with regards to promoting or enhancing women’s position in attaining professional status in the present and future contexts. How do organisations deal with the complex issues affecting their smooth running? Discuss gendered organisations Dawe’s (1970; p.214) explanation of sociology draws two distinct aspects, sociology of social systems and sociology of social actions both of which are of opposing nature but concerned with order and control of situations. These two sociological aspects contradict each other in terms of humanity, society and the interrelationships between human beings and society. Dawe (1970, p.214) stated, “the first asserts the paramount necessity, for societal and individual well-being, of external constraint; hence the notion of a social system ontologically and methodologically prior to its participants; on the other hand the second one reinforces the concept of autonomous man, able to realize his full potential and to create a truly human social order only when freed from external constraint.” Considering organisations as social systems, individual needs were integrated with organisational needs through various approaches that reinforced human relations (Morgan, 1998). Barnard (1938) defined organisation as a system of consciously coordinated activities of two or more persons (Rainey, 2009; p.35). applying Dawe’s (1970) postulation on sociology of systems and sociology of actions to organisations, as defined by Barnard (1938), a clear link can be established on the influence that organisational actions can create on systems and vice versa. Organisations play a significant role in shaping the society in terms of gender, race, class, political power, economic status, sociocultural influence etc (Handel, 2003; p.371). Contrary to the classical view of a mechanized organisation, Barnard’s definition emphasizes the role of human beings in forming an organisation. However, the concept of gender has laid differing emphasis on the role of ‘humans’ in an organisational context, evidenced through the vast research and literature focusing on issues raised by women employees across the world with respect to wages paid, promotions, responsibilities, scope of employment, workplace harassment etc (Handel, 2003). Charles Darwin (1871) had opined that “the chief distinction in the intellectual powers of the two sexes is shown by man attainting to higher eminence, in whatever he takes up, than woman can attain-whether requiring deep thought, reason, or imagination, or …the use of senses and the hands” (Abbott, Wallace & Tyler, 2005; p 10). This sentence forms a clear indication of influence of biological perception of women which has far penetrated into their sociological treatment, evident in the differences that exist between men and women, in aspects of rights, freedom, duties, culture, and even socio-economic status, and these differences cannot be traced to any particular period in history. Abbott et al.’s studies indicate that even the Western societies, which are shaped by a commitment to equality, have an obvious influence of men-women differences and also show evidences of numerous offences against women. The classical management of organisations articulated by Weber, Fayol, and Taylor worked extremely well in the conventional settings; however, with changing needs and demands, legislation, and environment, this notion has been replaced by other contingency theories reinforcing the human element in organisations by the Human Relations School. According to this view, organisations were considered as human and social systems, precisely framing the concept of sociology of organisations in its right sense (Handel, 2003; p.77). However, when it comes to gender preferences, males are preferred to females in most of the roles including critical decision making positions, operational responsibility roles, senior executive roles etc. Reports reveal that more women were employed in part-time jobs, seasonal jobs, less competitive and physically less demanding jobs. Various reasons have been attributed to these imbalances in employment such as biased hiring to avoid conflicts between males and females, personal values, beliefs about sex differences in skills etc. Majority of specific jobs occupied by women eventually named these jobs as meant for women. In Brickell’s (2006) opinion drawn from key sociological constructions indicates that constructs related to gender are actually a result of the social practices that produce apparent differences. Gendering of jobs, somewhere, emerged as a consequence of female critique of dominant social science tradition. This may be evidenced in various works that men and women do; work here refers to the unpaid labour within employment, and such work includes activities such as counseling an angry peer, attending first-aid session, arranging get together parties etc. Connell (1987) points out that gendering of work emerges as a consequence to embodied pleasures and pains and understanding of work, making the concept very complex and having a reciprocative impact (cited in Morgan, Brandth & Kvande; 2005),very similar to Dawe’s concept of sociology (1970). Based on such observations, various sociological theories have been developed to explain gender inequalities in labour market in terms of division of labour, domination of specific gender in specific work. For instance, micro-sociological theories explain the basic differences between men and women, differential treatment, and effect on their self perception. Secondly, culture theory from a sociological perspective attempts to explain different reasons for these differences. Thirdly, role theories point out the differences between sexes based on different expectations, behavioural patterns and psychological characteristics. Finally, the socialization theories attempt to identify the reasons for people’s behaviour, in relation with their childhood experiences including choices in education and the child’s self-concept (Billing & Alvesson, 1994). Humanization of organisations is said to have boomed during 1930-1950s, and conceptualized through Hawthorne experiments, explained sociologically by Elton Mayo, Fritz Roethlisberger and William Dickinson. Apart from physical conditions, there were other radical changes that were implemented, which also contributed to the enhanced worker performance. These changes can be considered as the landmarks of organisational development. For instance, formation of smaller work groups, lesser supervision, empowering workers, and reduced pressure along with clear targets induced greater motivation, commitment and enjoyment at work (Handel, 2003). Handel’s (2003) conjecture of the Hawthorne’s experiments support the argument that higher output can be achieved through positive social conditions and organisational climate, and not through physical features of work, work design, human capacities or pay incentives. Although these experiments were not gender oriented, and were more inclined towards application of sociology in industries, the outcomes may be related to both the genders. Based on various theories related to gender differences, organisational behavioural patterns, and their impact on organisational performance that have been postulated, organisations have been attempting to minimize these differences through different measures and practices. The most important and widely adopted practice is that of diversity management. Diversity management policies are meant to promote equality in organisations through antidiscrimination practices and policies. These anti discrimination practices and policies are framed based on different perspectives including gender equality, race, caste, economic status, sociocultural groups, religion, community, nationality etc. According to Russell and Taylor (2006, p. 324), “Managing diversity is the process of creating and a work environment in which all employees can contribute to their full potential in order to achieve a company’s goals.” Realization of importance of diversity management through policies and legislation is a more recent affair in most of the countries. The main prerequisites of diversity management are equal rights legislation and affirmative/positive action policies in order to create social, legal and organisational environment conducive for diversity management (Mor-Barak, 2005; Russel & Taylor, 2006). However, sociological theorists argue that implementation of these diversity policies is influenced by the holistic cultural configuration including societal, occupational, class and organisational subcultures (Billing & Alvesson, 1994). Researches carried out over the last decade still indicate influence of gender stereotyping in organisational cultures and behaviours. For example, Blau and De Varo’s (2007) empirical research revealed significantly higher rates of promotions for men than women, and slightly higher wage components for men. Contradictory to this finding was the research by Gerhard and Milkovich (1989) revealing higher promotion rates and wage raises for women. Collinson and Hearn (1994) identified different discourses of men and masculinities that tend to characterize organisational and managerial cultures; these include authoritarianism, paternalism, entrepreneurialism, informalism, careerism. They assert that understanding these discourses enable establishment of reasons that reproduce management and masculinities; in turn, it also has an informal impact on effective application of diversity management practices that might oppress men’s power in organisations (Hearn, 2002). Trend has shown that sexual harassment is more prevalent in workplaces, where it is mainly due to the power of supervisors. Research during 1980s in European nations revealed that millions of women suffered sexual harassment in their workplaces. The risk of harassment was found highest among groups which were already vulnerable in other ways such as divorced or separated women, young women, and women with irregular or temporary employment contracts, women in non-traditional jobs, women with disabilities and lesbian women (Fredman, 1997). Promoting equal opportunities for men and women has always gained top priority for all organisations for their growth and prosperity. To achieve this many firms have defined codes of conduct to prohibit and punish any sexual harassment at workplaces, thus creating a favourable organisational culture. With more and more women coming to work, risk of sexual offences increase, and these offences may prove highly damaging to the organisation and community. Hence, organisations had to promote and safeguard the dignity of every employee, and had to prohibit any form of harassment- whether physical, based on race, colour, sex, or emotional or psychological (Manley, 1992). For the first time in 1984, the Council of Ministers recommendation in the European Union acknowledged sexual harassment as a serious issue from a legal perspective (Zippel, 2006). Eventually, a specific section of European Employment law was formulated to concentrate on providing equal opportunities for women in employment and labour market, and eliminate inequalities affecting women in work life, and to promote the safety and security of women at workplaces. Woman’s dignity was given the top most priority and formulated a code of conduct on sexual harassment in the workplace, covering harassment of both sexes. It also included resolutions on violence against women (Kenner, 2003). These laws emphasize the impact of sexual harassment on employees and give importance to equal opportunity for all citizens of the nation. The other factors affecting women’s progress in professions can be derived from a collaborative research by two research consultants, from the U.S.A and the U.K, on 3800 women, with 31% response rate; this study revealed that the main obstacles to professional direction for women included challenge of balancing work at senior levels and family life, stereotyping and inhospitable organisational culture, lack of role models and exclusion from formal networks. This report published significant results that underpinned different reasons that hold women from progressing on the professional front. For instance, organisational culture and attitudinal barriers weaken women’s contributions and morale preventing them from reaching the top. However, significant portion of the sample population also felt that the legislation and anti-discrimination policies helped in improving the situation. Considering the contemporary developments and recommendations adopted from ‘Opportunities Now (2000)’ report that identified individual and organisational strategies fostering women’s advancement provide a better understanding of the direction taken by the entire concept. Both, women’s own career choices and their employers’ policies and practices are critical to women’s success on the professional front. More women have realized the importance of networking, promoting visibility, increasing influential contacts that can help their career advancements. Women are now considering strategy as an important tool to advance; research outlined three strategies to this effect, namely consistently exceeding performance, matching the style with that of male counterparts, and sketching their own career goals. Challenges to career development vary within different employment sectors. Organisational initiatives that promote women’s advancements include flexible work policies and programmes, development programmes, identifying and developing high potential employees, job rotation, recruitment practices etc. While empirical research has indicated that women hold hard work, extraordinary commitment and technical know-how of job as the most important requirements to succeed at work, other behaviours such as networking, visibility, awareness of organisational politics need to be explored with an intention to change the stereotyped image. Strategies to assist with work/life balance, career development strategies, diversity and culture change strategies, equal opportunity policies are some important steps that can lead to reduction in gender inequalities at work (Opportunities Now, 2000). Concluding with Dawe’s (1970; p.214) inference on sociology that stated,’ social systems view action as the derivate of system and social action views system as the derivate of action’ is a view that is highly coherent with the gender stereotyping, gender inequalities, and gender issues faced in organisations. At a broader level, organisational culture and leadership have a significant role in creating this stereotype as well as eliminating it. Organisations can play a significant role in bringing a paradigm shift in gender perception and roles by adopting the right organisational culture through conscious effort towards driving the right behaviour, attitude and practices. Looking at the sequential changes in management principles that lead to significant evolution, starting from Weber’s principles, Taylorism and Fordism to the contemporary strategic human resources management impacted by globalization, a complete transformation in perceptions related to all sorts of discrimination (gender, race, society, nation etc) may be required in order to promote harmony and progress of organisations, and mankind in total. References Books Abbott, P, Wallace, C and Tyler, M. (2005). An Introduction to Sociology. Edition 3. New York: Routledge. Billing, Y.D. and Alvesson, M. (1994). Gender, managers, and organisations. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Fredman, S. (1997). Women and the law. New York: Oxford University press. Handel, M.J. (2003).The sociology of organisations: classic, contemporary, and critical readings. California: SAGE. Hearn, J. (2002). Alternative conceptualizations and theoretical perspectives on identities and organisational cultures. 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