Key Developments in TQM of Changing Business Requirements - Essay Example

Quality" is now a familiar word. However it has a variety of interpretations and uses, and there are many definitions. Evaluate the key developments in Total Quality Management within the context of changing business requirements TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 2 Executive Summary 3 Key Developments of TQM 4 Quality Gurus 8 Tools and Techniques 10 Conclusion 16 Bibliography 18 Introduction The highly competitive state of business in today’s global economy sees firms competing across borders as well as within them. The successful companies differentiate themselves from others through producing and or offering higher quality than their competitors, which is an intangible that has tangible benefits in better products, higher service levels, customer perceptions, marketing, utility, and overall reputation (Reddy, 1994, P. 10). Total Quality Management (TQM) represents a strategy whereby management seeks to instill quality awareness within all of its organisation areas (Beckford, 2003, P. 11). The baseline word in TQM is represented by quality, which Wild (2002, P. 21) defines as: “The quality of a product or service is the degree to which it satisfies customer requirements. It is influenced by: Design quality: the degree to which the specification of the product/service satisfies customer’s requirements. Process quality: the degree to which the product or service, which is made available to the customer, conforms to specification.” Gravin (1984, P. 11) helps us in understanding the dynamics of quality as it relates to this study through explaining the eight dimensions that he feels represent this area: Table 1 – Eight Dimensions of Quality (Gravin, 1984, p. 11) 1 Performance This represents the efficiency of a product or service is in achieved the purpose for which it is intended. 2 Features These are the elements that add to the basis performance of a product or service. 3 Reliability The consistency of a product or service to perform trouble free and as expected over its useful life cycle. 4 Conformance That the product and or service conform to the specifications for its use. 5 Durability This represents the degree that a product is able to withstand stress without failing. 6 Serviceability The ease of which a product can be repaired. 7 Aesthetics This is the sensory characteristic with respect to its look and or how it sounds. 8 Perceived Quality The customer’s perceptions as well as opinions from the basis for this perception. The foregoing has been brought forth to provide a visual as well as mental framework of reference with regard to the central issue of this study, quality. This examination seeks to take the foregoing and apply this concept of quality to the precepts of Total Quality Management in achieving the end of delivering on the promise to customers and or clients. This exploration shall look into the elements comprising TQM from the preceding perspective as a guide to gauge its applicability in light of the foregoing, looking at how TQM operates in the context of organisations. Executive Summary Total Quality Management is an evolutionary process in keeping with its definition as offered by the American Federal Office of Management Budget Circular that states it is (Milakovich, 1990, P. 209): “… a total organisational approach for meeting customer needs and expectations that involves all managers and employees in using quantitative methods to improve continuously the organization’s processes, products and services.” The above is an encompassing statement that when combined with the definition and understanding of quality sets forth a demanding arena. TQM is more than a technical system, as shall be revealed in this study, it is an engrained series and set of methodologies that become a part of the overall organisation, intertwining with its processes, culture and customers (Oakland, 1993, Pp. 14-16). The highly competitive nature of business means that it is a constantly evolving environment of innovations, improvements, shifting customer loyalties and other variables. As such, and processes associated with quality needs to be fluid and dynamic, being able to be in advance of as well as respond to the variables of a consistently changing dynamic. This study shall look at TQM from the standpoints of understanding and pointing out its key developments, along with looking into how the field of TQM not only came into being but evolved as a result of contributions, findings and new approaches as represented by what is termed as its Quality Guru’s. Given the aforementioned competitive nature of the business arena, TQM represents a means to either catch up with, stay abreast of, or maintain a competitive advantage, which by the very nature of the environment means that it (TQM) must also be adaptable to change. The implementation of Total Quality Management thus represents an important facet on the part of organisations that must become a part of its operational culture, in the same manner that its products and or services are, as it is an extension of these since it represents a reputation and utility bond with customers and or clients. Key Developments of TQM Total Quality Management, as shall be brought forth in the look at Quality Guru’s, has been a long developing practice that began in the 1920s. One key development was the ‘Plan – Do – Check – Act’ cycle (PDCA) as devised by Walter Shewart during the 1930s (asq.org, 2006). The foregoing was popularised during the 1960s by Deming as a checklist of items to be done to move from the problems being addressed to their solution (American Society for Quality, 2007a). Shewart’s development represented a model for the conduct of change that is represented by the use of a circle, signifying that it (the circle) has no end (American Society for Quality, 2007b). As a result, the PDCA cycle is repetitive, thus fostering continued improvement (American Society for Quality, 2007b). The PDCA process consists of four stages as represented by 1. the ‘Plan’ to improve operations through uncovering what is not working properly, and then seeking solutions to correct issues, with number 2. ‘Do’ entailing reaching an understanding as to if the changes necessary will have an immediate impact, or if they will need to be explored in terms of various approaches to determine the one that best solves the issues (American Society for Quality, 2007a). Number three represents ‘Check’, which represents checking the processes installed as solutions to see how they are working, with the fourth segment represented by ‘Act’, meaning that if the preceding prove positive, then implementations on a larger scale or actual enactment is warranted (American Society for Quality, 2007a). Deming’s improvements on Shewart’s four stage process entailed what is termed as “14 Points of Management’ represented the following (valuebasedmanagement.net, 2006). Table 2 – Deming’s 14 Points of Management (valuebasedmanagement.net, 2006) 1 Creation of consistency of purpose as a means to improve service and products This point represents the allocation of resources for long term planning, research as well as service and product design. 2 New philosophy adoption Deming stated that to move forward in terms of advancing quality management that new philosophies are needed to remove obstacles as represented by government regulations, organisation transformation and other external and internal impediments 3 Elimination of mass inspection dependency It was pointed out by Deming that a critical key to quality management is engraining quality in company processes at all levels as a means to minimise defects and occurrences as opposed to correction after the fact. 4 Ending business practices of awarding work based on pricing alone The attainment of consistency in quality is a proposition that is long term and requires the varied departments in an organisation to work together on a continual basis to reduce errors and defects. The preceding means forging long term associations as a means to achieve the foregoing as a result of evolution through working together with companies as opposed to shifting vendors based on best price. 5 Consistency in long term improvement regarding service and production systems Deming brought forth that it is management’s responsibility to build a culture into the organisation that is committed to quality as a result of ongoing improvements concerning processes via working with employees in achievement of this objective. 6 Training processes As a means to achieve consistent quality improvement in an organisation, employees along with management need ongoing training as a process. 7 Leadership Important in carrying out effective quality improvements and implementation is leadership from the top down as opposed to supervision. 8 Reduction of fear Deming argues that critical to the development of quality management is a organisational climate that causes employees to feel secure with respect to the expression of their suggestions and ideas. It is also highly important for management to pay attention to the foregoing and encourage more interaction via positive reinforcement. 9 Removal and the breaking down of barriers regarding staffing areas The use as well as creation of teams and having them work together represents a means to more effectively improve quality and production. Opening up lines of communication and resources to these ends is an important part of the TQM process. 10 Eliminating slogans, targets as well as exhortations for employees Deming advises that problems concerning quality are a result of the system being utilised as opposed to the people engaged in the system. He admonishes the use of slogans and similar techniques as they help to generate resentment and frustration as opposed to improving the working environment. 11 Eliminating numerical quotas Quotas place pressure on employees as well as working teams to achieve numerical numbers that could cause quality to suffer. Quotas tied to raise, incentive clauses and performance work against quality attainment. 12 Removing barriers that rob staff of pride in their work Deming argues the performance reviews of employees tend to act as barriers to pride regarding achievement. 13 Encouraging education and self improvement Fostering ongoing education and learning for employees aids in the improvement of comprehension and their job functions, along with their career direction. 14 Taking action as a means to accomplish quality transformation To cause all of the preceding facets to work as a means to improve quality, Deming advises that management and employees need to make the commitment through defined programs and adding the mantra to the corporate culture. The preceding has provided insight as to facets for the implementation of TQM for which the order of approach can differ, but the elements remain constant. Quality management represents an organisation supports as well as defines itself in “… the consistent attainment of customer satisfaction …” as a result of “… an integrated system of tools, techniques and training” (oznet.ksu.edu, 2006). This means that there is entails “…continuous improvement of organisation processes …” to result “… in high quality products and services” (oznet.ksu.edu, 2006). In accomplishing the above there are three main cornerstones in quality management that need to be observed as represented by 1. customers, 2. counting, and 3. culture (oznet.ksu.edu, 2006). The preceding means that customers are the central as well as driving force of the organisation, with counting representing the use of techniques, training, and tools for analyzing, understanding and culture represented by “… shared values and beliefs as expressed by … (management) … that define and support quality” (oznet.ksu.edu, 2006). Another key development in TQM is the Juran Trilogy as devised by Dr. Juran, which is comprised of three elements (Juran, 2007). The first of these is ‘Planning’, which is the process whereby the organisation prepares for the attainment of quality goals and objectives (Vernon and Buehler, 1991, P. 19). The controlling factor is a means to meet quality objectives, with the result to conduct operations in accordance with the plan devised for meeting quality, and lastly quality improvement is the process for moving to higher levels of performance that includes gains in quality that exceed prior standards (Vernon and Buehler, 1991, P. 19). The International Standards Organization (ISO) that came into existence in 1987 represented the publishing of five standards as a guide to compliance with quality management (American Society for Quality Control, 2007c). The foregoing are ISO 9000, 9001, 9002, 9003, and 9004 (ISO, 2007). ISO 9000 sets forth a highly structured system of analytical methods devised to provide assurance customers receive what they have ordered. TQM within the context of ISO represent standards, guidelines and frameworks defining an organisational quality foundation and the means by which such are achieved (ISO, 2007). The foregoing represent” Table 3 – ISO 9000 Components (Arter, 1992, Pp. 65-67) 1 management responsibility 2 quality system 3 contract review 4 design control 5 document control 6 purchasing 7 customer supplied product 8 product identification and the ability to be traced 9 process control, 10 inspection and testing 11 inspection, measuring and test equipment 12 inspection and test status 13 control of nonconforming product 14 corrective action 15 handling, storage, packaging and delivery 16 quality records 17 internal quality audits 18 training 19 servicing, and 20 statistical techniques As a standard, ISO 9000 impacts all facets of an organisation in its quality approach through the aforementioned processes. Another key development in TQM is Watkins and Marsick who devised a systematic and metric based approach to quality management (Bennett, 1994. P. 34). Their approach states that the organization’s learning process is continuous, taking place in its individuals and is embedded as a cultural aspect (Bennett, 1994, P. 34). Watkins and Marsick state that the process includes auditing, along with what they term as the seven C’s of 1. ongoing learning, 2. learning that is collaborative, 3. connected learning, 4. collective learning, 5. learning that is creative, 6. codified and captured learning, and 7. capacity building (Bennett, 1994, P. 34). The preceding provides insight into TQM as an evolutionary process that has continuously refined itself over time and is still refining itself presently. Quality Gurus The principles and foundations of TQM can be traced back to the middle of the 1920s as represented by statistical theories developed by American Walter Shewart (Lowson, 2002, P. 7). Called the ‘father of statistical quality control’ (Lowson, 2002, P. 7) Shewart advanced principles of quality management that took major leaps forward between 1910 and 1920 starting with foundations as laid by Frederick Taylor (1911) who developed the ‘Principle of Scientific Management’ that put forth the best methods for performing jobs was based on “…on observation, measurement and analysis” (Freeman, 1996, P. 34). Other contributors were Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (1911) with their introduction of time and motion studies along with industrial psychology analysis, and efficiency experts (Shafritz, 1998, P. 639). Other developments included Henry Gantt’s (1912) activity scheduling methodology (Bruce, 2006, P. 16) as well as Henry Ford’s (1913) furtherance of the assembly line that increased mass production (Bak, 2003, P. 59). Shewart worked on the development of inspection and sampling methods that included statistical controls (Dinsmore and Cabanis-Brewin, 2006, P. 385), with Elton Mayo’s work on the Hawthorne studies furthering the understanding of worker motivation and worker productivity (Yogev, 2001, P. 21). The advancement of the precepts of Total Quality Management continued in the 1930s through 1960s with refinements provided by W. Edwards Deming to Shewart’s work where his major contributions were the importance of worker motivation (Hahn, 2002, P. 31). Deming is probably the best known of all the quality guru’s as he is broadly acknowledged with the improvement of productivity in the United States during the period known as the Cold War (Hahn, 2002, P. 33). Known for his pioneering work in Japan where he taught Japanese managers how to improve product quality, design, service, testing as well as sales, Deming was a proponent of statistical methods who was honored by Emperor Hirohito for his accomplishments (Hahn, 2002, P. 33). Revered in Japan as one of the more influential businessman who set forth management and quality principles that shaped their industrial sector, Deming is considered as the pioneer of quality control in production (Hahn, 2002, P. 33). Another important contributor to the advancement of quality management has been Abraham Maslow (Zaleznik, 1989, P. 51). His hierarchy of human needs introduced a new understanding of human psychology and characteristics (Zaleznik, 1989, P. 51). Self-actualization represented a foundational premise in Maslow’s approach and provided a means to better understand motivation and how to implement it (Zaleznik, 1989, P. 59). The 1950 and 60s saw the development of Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) and Critical Path Analysis (CPA) (Pike and Barnes, 1996, Pp. 92-94) which shall be chronicled further under Tools and Techniques in this study. Wickham, Skinner, and Hayes, continued advancements in quality in the 1980s as represented by their developments to competitive strategy (Swamidass, 2002, P. 17). This period also saw the introduction of Computer-integrated Manufacturing (CIM), which as the name implies represents when the manufacturing process is computer controlled (Cortada, 2004, Pp. 5-9). Hammer and Champney (1993, Pp. 5-7) introduced Business Process Re-engineering in the 1990s that was developed in response to the emergence of e-commerce as well as the Internet, bringing with it processes for handling electronic data and management in the new era. The preceding are the more noteworthy of the Quality Guru’s, all of which could not be reviewed in terms of the many who have contributed to this field. Tools and Techniques The period of the 1950s and 60s saw extensive work on areas termed as operational research. The preceding gave birth to tools such as Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) as well as Critical Path Analysis (CPA) (Kendrick, 2003, Pp. 92-94). PERT represents a model utilised in project management that serves to analyze as well as represent tasks that are in a project (Armacost and Jauernig, 1991, P. 17). Figure 1 – PERT Chart (criticaltools.com, 2004) PERT provides a means to simplify scheduling as well as planning in complex and large projects whereby a multitude of variables can cause delays and adjustments and or impact quality (Kendrick, 2003, Pp. 92-94). Quality guru Frederick Taylor’s principles of scientific management represented the foundations of PERT that found new life in the 1960s under project management (Project Insight, 2008). Table 4 – PERT Advantages and Disadvantages (Thierauf, 1978, Pp. 173-174) Advantages Disadvantages 1 Specifies how planning is to be done Realistic time and cost estimates which occurs particularly in new and or different types of projects 2 Provides management with an approach for maintaining planning in an up to date manner Securing operating and management acceptance as a result of the natural reluctance of accepting change 3 Affords a means to quickly foresee deviation impacts from the plan and thus take corrective actions Personnel training is also a factor which harkens back to the resistance to change and the time to learn the nuances of PERT 4 Principle value is that PERT aids management to achieve objectives in a minimum time frame as well as cost The development of a clear as well as logical network as there is no sure means to assure that the plan represents the best thinking of the planners. This translates into a human problem as PERT is limited by the expertise of the individuals designing the network and solutions. 5 All managers know the starting time for their work as a coordinated activity PERT is not useful for all types of projects such as those that are highly nebulous or too changeable to permit methodical planning. 6 Management responsibilities are empirically and precisely designated Integrating network techniques and existing budgeting and cost accounting as the estimates could be padded by those planning the network know that pinning down their time and cost frames is difficult. 7 Vagueness is removed as a result of responsibility assignment The problem of juggling resources in accommodation of operating several programs at one time may prove to stretch management capabilities. 8 PERT provides a means for thinking through all steps and interrelationships in a methodical manner Potential difficulty in integrating projects 9 Provides a number of checks and safeguards from going off the plan Estimating costs in implementing PERT, which requires learning the systems as well as a commitment to its use. It is estimated that the cost of using the system can range as high as 5% of the project. The above seemingly indicates that the advantages out number the disadvantages, with cost and commitment to PERT representing the major considerations. The DuPont Corporation developed the Critical Path Analysis (CPA) approximately in the same period that PERT came into wide spread use (refresher.com, 2006). Its purpose is to function as a schedule analysis of networks to provide a visual illustration of the shortest time path for project completion, along with ramifications of selecting that approach (refresher.com, 2006). The critical tasks (activities) under CPA are planned, initiated, monitored, executed, controlled prior to activating a project accordance with the mapping of activities and their potential outcomes to determine the direction as the selected method through understanding the ramifications of differing scenarios and their potential outcomes (Mind Tools, 2008). The approach aids in the identification of the minimum time frame needed for project completion after examining the variables and the steps or areas needing more attention and resources to aid in the competition process (Mind Tools, 2008). CPA is typically used in conjunction with Gantt Charts as the latter permits a more useful visual look at the overall process (Mind Tools, 2008). Under CPA the individual components of the differing parts and or tasks of a project are analyzed and assigned time frame values to estimate completion and the resources needed to increase their completion rate where possible (AdeptTracker, 2009). Table 5 – Critical Path Analysis Advantages and Disadvantages (Kelleher, 2004, Pp. 36-38) Advantages Disadvantages 1 Improved estimating and bidding CPA requires too much dependency in terms of reliance on specialists 2 Enhanced planning prior to the start of work The CPA system requires an excessive amount of work to implement 3 Improved scheduling It is not responsive to the needs of top management 4 Faster response to problems and issues arising after implementation Not responsive to the needs of field personnel 5 Improved project understanding 6 Increased communication throughout the workforce 7 Aids in the training of future project managers 8 Provides cost as well as time savings 9 Reduces delays 10 Reduces cost overruns Provides increased control over risk as well as uncertainty In a survey conducted on the relative advantages and disadvantages of CPA 60 respondents lauded that it provides the following overall: Table 6 – Critical Path Analysis Advantages and Disadvantages Responses (Kelleher, 2004, Pp. 36-38) (Based on 60 Responses) 1 Good computer programs 44 73% 2 Good training of personnel 33 55% 3 Good top management support 33 55% 4 Good support from project management 50 83% 5 Good Support from field personnel 30 50% 6 Development of new hardware 4 7% Six Sigma represents a management strategy that was developed by Motorola of the United States in 1986 (Gupta, 2004, P. 12). The foundation of Six Sigma began as a series of practices devised to improve manufacturing process as well as to eliminate sources of defects (Pande et al, 2000. Pp. 5-8). Six Sigma was founded on the principles of improvement of the quality process through the identification as well as removal of defect causes, errors and variables in the manufacturing and business operations that cause and or contribute to the foregoing (Carreira and Trudell, 2006, Pp. 9-10). Through the utilization of a series of quality management methodologies that include statistics, it creates special designations of people and teams within an organisation that are provided with color designations termed Black, Green or other colour belts, signifying their levels of expertise and ranking (Eckes, 2003, P. 31). The development of Six Sigma was inspired by TQM principles, zero defects and incorporates the work of Shewart, Deming, Juran, Ishiawa as well as Taguchi and others who have innovated and built upon quality management (Box, 2006, Pp. 11-12). Those precepts represent Six Sigma as an ongoing process that builds upon itself to improve results in a stabile environment that predictably moves ahead (Box, 2006, Pp. 14-15). It also include business and manufacturing processes that can be measured, be subjected to analysis, improved upon as well as controlled, hallmarks of quality management processes (Eckes, 2003, P. 29). As is repeated herein, management and the organisation must make a commitment to Six Sigma as it is a manner of doing things as opposed to an add on technique. The nuance of Six Sigma in what makes it different from other quality management processes is that it seeks quantifiable as well as measurable financial returns for the projects it is utilised on (Carreira and Trudell, 2006, Pp. 6-7). It also adds increased emphasis on management leadership as well as support, and utilises decision-making based on information and data that can be verified as opposed to assumptions (Carreira and Trudell, 2006, Pp. 6-7). As is the case with any process, there are benefits and disadvantages: Table 7 – Six Sigma Advantages and Disadvantages (Carreira and Trudell, 2006, Pp. 18-22) Advantages Disadvantages 1 It is based on data with decisions made on empirical evidence The room for creative decisions outside of the box are eliminated thus limiting potential approaches and or solutions that cannot be quantified by data 2 The verifiable data set means that solutions are sustainable, with processes conformed under the data banner Implementing approaches that do not fit this mold are eliminated, thus innovative solutions as posed by Apple and its full integrated manufacturing process would be at odds with Six Sigma 3 The timeframe utilised under Six Sigma is a commitment that is ongoing Substantial time needs to be committed to Six Sigma in order to reap the benefits and results 4 Training is a hallmark of the Six Sigma process. The training is extensive and time consuming. A area that is frequently employed in TQM are the of the “… seven tools of quality control …” developed by Kaoru Ishikawa (Beckford, 2002, p. 101). The foregoing represent the following: Table 8 – Ishikawa’s Seven Tools of Quality Control (Beckford, 2002, p. 101) 1 Pareto Charts These are utilised to identify the key components causing problems 2 Ishikawa Charts These are used to map cause as well as effect in processes whereby diagrams can also be used. 3 Stratification The use of this technique represents layer charts whereby differing sets of data are placed successively on top of prior charts to reveal differences and progress as well as issues. 4 Checklists These provide a record regarding quality. 5 Histograms This aspect represent graphs that are utilised to illustrate the frequency of differing ranges of quantity values. 6 Scattergraphs This technique is used to help ascertain if there is a correlation existing between two factors. 7 Control Charts These are utilised a part of statistical processes. Deming provides us with an understanding of techniques involved in TQM that add to the tools and processes. He pointed out that there are seven diseases to its implementation (TQM) (Sallis, 2002, p. 36). Table 9 – Deming’s Seven Deadly Diseases to Implementation (Sallis, 2002, p. 36) 1 Lack of consistency of purpose This is described as being a crippling disease that in many cases prevents an organisation for adopting quality management, also inhibiting clear vision development. Consistency of purpose is needed to motivate employees. 2 Short Term Thinking This is what Deming terms as not taking the long-term view in preparing and implementing objectives. 3 Individual Performance This aspect entails merit ratings and or annual reviews of employee performance that Deming states are short-term solutions. His argument is that the foregoing are based upon outcomes that are measurable and can be misleading of what is important. He adds that the quality of contribution cannot be measured in this manner. 4 Job Hopping This represents high turnover of executive talent in the West that muddles consistency, as opposed to the highly stabile employment relationships in Japan and most Asian nations. 5 Visible Figures Deming termed that a barrier to effective TQM implementation resides in visible figures as represented by the customers and or clients of the business as the measurement of success as opposed to performance indicators 6 Common and Special Causes of Failure These represent what are attributable to the failure of systems that are running the operation. This area can be solved through new processes via changes. Special causes represent unforeseen events that require delving into areas such as material failures or faults as a result of mixtures and or component specifications. 7 Special or Assignable Causes This facet is non-random variations in a system, along with causes that are external. Sallis (2002, p. 37) tells us that these are faults and or failures from policy, systems and or resource issues whereby the source of the problem needs to be changed, removed, improved and or re-organised. Conclusion Total Quality Management has many differing names and applications as represented by ‘Plan – Do – Check – Act’ cycle (PDCA) (asq.org, 2006), the Juran Trilogy (Juran, 2007), the International Standards Organization (ISO) (American Society for Quality Control, 2007c), Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) and the Critical Path Analysis (CPA) (Kendrick, 2003, Pp. 92-94) as well as Six Sigma. The preceding represent the processes as covered in this examination, although there are other manifestations of TQM that have not been covered herein due to space and time constraints. The foregoing examination of quality and the components of quality management have brought forth that there are a number of methods, each with their own particular approach. PERT makes models of the tasks in projects, aiding in the simplification and planning for projects that are large as well as complex (Kendrick, 2003, Pp. 92-94). It makes use of the principles of scientific management as devised by Frederick Taylor, with the commitment to its use being a major disadvantage for all of PERT’s laudable features (Thierauf, 1978, Pp. 173-174). Critical Path Analysis (CPA) represents an alternative to PERT, and it differs in terms of it functioning as a schedule analysis of networks in a visual mode as a means to illustrate and map the shortest timeframe for the completion of a project (refresher.com, 2006). As is the case with the PERT method, the tasks as monitored, planned, controlled and executed in accord with decisions, but CPA provides the added variable of offering a look at varied scenarios prior to committing to a determined path (Mind Tools, 2008). CPA usually works in conjunction with Gantt Charts as a planning and visual aid, with the list of advantages in the process out weighing its disadvantages. The other quality management method reviewed in this study represented Six Sigma, an innovation as developed by Motorola (Gupta, 2004, P. 12). It utilised a series of practices to improve quality, along with uncovering the source and or causes of defects (Carreira and Trudell, 2006, Pp. 9-10). Six Sigma assigns rankings to individuals and teams under its process as a means to build teamwork and identify stellar performers, however it is an innovation that is mainly used in American companies, with PERT and CPA representing the more broadly used as they are based n Deming’s foundations that include adherence to his ‘Seven Deadly Diseases to Implementation” (Sallis, 2002, p. 36) that does not use employee rating systems as signified in Six Sigma. The use of quality management, as brought forth herein, is a subjective selection, meaning it depends on the type of organisation, its culture and level of commitment. As has been indicated, a commitment to quality management is a long term proposition, thus choosing the process best suited to the problems and issues as faced by the organisation represents a starting point in the selection of the approach. Bibliography American Society for Quality (2007c) ISO 9000 and Other Standards. Retrieved on 6 November 2009 from http://www.asq.org/learn-about-quality/iso-9000/overview/overview.html Armacost, R., Jauernig, R. (1991) Planning and Managing a Major Recruiting Project. Vol. 20. Public Personnel Management Arter, D. (1992) Demystifying the ISO 9000 / Q 90 Series Standards. Vol. 25, No. 11. Quality Progress. Pp. 65-67 Bak, R. (2003) Henry and Edsel: The Creation of the Ford Empire. John H. Wiley & Sons. Hoboken, N.J., United States. P. 59 Beckford, J. (2002) Quality. Routledge. 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