Qualitative Data Analysis by Miles and Huberman - Essay Example

QUESTION Miles and Huberman (1994) identify a variety of modern tools and techniques for conducting qualitative analysis in order to explore and describe. They warn, "Summarizing superficially across some themes, or main variables by itself tells us little" (p.205). Describe and analyze three different qualitative approaches to research by identifying and then comparing their overall philosophical differences, assumptions, and procedures. Choose one qualitative method and compare and contrast two tools or techniques available to deal with large amounts of qualitative data; identifying the selected tools strengths and weaknesses and the challenges of implementing them. Miles. M.B., and Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd edition). Thousand Oak, CA: Sage. Introduction We are surrounded by data everywhere. Our lives are influenced by data pertaining to the things we feel and see, the things we eat, the different things that we think about as also the constitution of our surroundings. Apart from this data that seems to engulf our lives, there is a separate class of data that one obtains as part of the quest to find answers to a specific question. In doing so, the efforts is often left with so much data that it is sometimes hard to ultimately determine the purpose for which the data has been collected let alone think of ways to analyze the collected data. What separates the data from information is the usefulness of the former, where analysis of data helps turn it or its subsequent outcomes into information. It is this information that helps one determine answers to questions and phenomenon that demands a structured effort. A question and its associated material that is being analyzed can be looked at from several perspectives. General forms of data and research analysis have always looked at answering the what, whom and where dimensions of the question and such an approach is hence known as quantitative approach as it tries to analyze quantifiable and measurable parameters. Nevertheless, many questions also arise with respect to why and how things occur. Answering questions determining the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of a phenomenon requires the analysis to take an approach that analyzes the answers across several subjects and disciplines and helps arrive at a thorough understanding. This form of research is trying to ascertain the quality associated with a phenomenon and is hence known as qualitative analysis. What is Qualitative Analysis? Qualitative analysis is a very simple technique at undertaking research and consists of three essential parts. These components that are named noticing, collecting and thinking are highly interactive and follow a cyclical pattern that is shown below: Diagram taken from Strauss, A. L. (1987) As the figure above depicts, qualitative data analysis is unlike any linear approached and does not simply involve studying something and writing a report on it. Instead, data analysis along qualitative grounds has to possess and tread along a few important characteristics. According to the position and analogy of Trochim (2006), qualitative analysis is as stated: Many qualitative researchers operate under different epistemological assumptions from quantitative researchers. For instance, many qualitative researchers believe that the best way to understand any phenomenon is to view it in its context. They see all quantification as limited in nature, looking only at one small portion of a reality that cannot be split or unitized without losing the importance of the whole phenomenon. Many qualitative researchers also operate under different ontological assumptions about the world. They dont assume that there is a single unitary reality apart from our perceptions. Since each of us experiences from our own point of view, each of us experiences a different reality. The important thing to understand is that Qualitative Analysis (QA) is iterative in nature and constantly looks towards improving on existing inferences and conclusions. Secondly, QA is highly recursive as each component within the noticing, collecting and thinking can refer to each of the other two depending on the requirement at that particular standpoint. Additionally, Creswell (2007) interprets qualitative analysis as the following: Qualitative research is a form of inquiry in which researchers’ make an interpretation of what they see, hear, and understand. The researchers’ interpretations cannot be separated from their own background, history, context, and prior understandings. In the entire qualitative research process, the researchers keep a focus on learning the meaning that the participants hold about the problem or issue, not the meaning that the researchers bring to the research or writers from literature (p. 39). QA is also seemingly holographic in nature owing to the fact that each phase in the analysis is capable within its entirety at providing the solution for that phase thus helping the process of analysis move further at a faster pace. Qualitative research is in effect a form of storytelling, suited to the personal frames of reference and philosophical perspective of the researcher (Creswell, 2007). Therefore, while the foundations of QA seem to be pretty simple in nature, the technique of undertaking qualitative research is highly complex in nature as the remainder of the approach will go on to display within this paper. The key to succeeding with QA is to stay firm and allow the approach to take its course. Each of these phases is discussed in brief below (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005): Noticing There are several perspectives in which one views and analyzes things. However, a more serious approach to research would essentially concentrate on the things that can and should be done in order to view the data. Additionally, the approach would also aim to identify the process of going about this process. As such, this is different from mere observation obtained through say interviews, conversations and write ups. With the requisite information, noticing strives to find out how to study that information in order to obtain interesting information or patterns that may be of value. Collecting As information is analyzed and interesting phenomenon and findings are notices, the flow of useful points necessitates the need to collect record and sort them as deemed appropriate. This is similar to solving a jigsaw puzzle when things start initially with no clue whatsoever and as things start building up, patterns start to emerge thereby speeding up the game. However, such an analogy is quite simple in comparison to collecting under QA. In QA, the analysis does not have a notion of the final picture for long and the elements that make up the solution are fluid and cannot be arranged into one another without additional effort. One of the simplest definitions of QA has mentioned it as the splitting of research material into sections and elements to the level where they can be considered manageable. The ultimate aim of this disassembly is to reconstruct these elements into more meaningful components that provide a more comprehensible solution. Initially, data may seem to be confusing and elements might seem unrelated to each other. However, subsequent efforts always help create a sense of order into these elements (Grbich, 2007). Examining With the elements of information collected and sorted appropriately, the final step is to compare and contrast each of them in order to identify similar patterns as also differences among them. The aim is to either devise new typologies to the data or identify patterns and sequences. In this phase, there are several possibilities, which may help unearth holes and deficiencies in the data thereby raising more questions leading to a more precise analysis in the next iteration (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Three Qualitative Approaches Research in many ways is a highly formal approach to studying a phenomenon in an effort to emphasize the factors and parameters that help it culminate. In fact, all of us do research in some way or the other constantly. We question our perceptions on life, the way we behave and deal with others, the way we react to different situations and the manner in which we idolize on other individuals, whom we believe as role models and aim to use their achievements and experiences as motivation. The social world is understood through questioning and is visualized on the basis of experiences. Social constructivists implement a theory that deals with multiple meanings while applying a theoretical framework in order to determine the details of research. Qualitative researchers often conduct research in the social realms of society and set themselves into the setting of the environment at which they are studying. Topics under philosophical discussions have evolved into subjects of empirical enquiry. During ancient times, scholars were involved in studying physics and biology by reading and understanding the teachings of Aristotle. Similarly, politics has become another subject which was heavily queried by philosophers through proper and extensive reasoning instead of investigation. In this context, one can observe several areas under psychology, especially Epistemology as undergoing a transformation, whereby the thought process has moved from determining how things should be done to settling to witness how they in fact get done (Strauss, A. L. & Corbin, J. M., 1990). Similarly, qualitative research is also concerned with determining the quality or value of the outcomes of the study. The quality of study and the results is important especially during philosophical investigations where the notion of value is crucial to the success of the study. Additionally, quality serves as the groundwork for providing some of the most basic facts in these fields, which casts it in line with Meta ethics. Axiology or the study of the value or quality thus serves as another important aspect of qualitative research, especially in modern studies that regard value along mathematical rigors (Bliss, J., Monk, M., & Ogborn, J., 2001). Qualitative research requires some special techniques in order to undertake investigation of questions. The subsequent sections will aim to discuss three different approaches that utilize each of these objectives as part of research activities for analyzing questions and will compare them along several criteria including approaches, assumptions and procedures. Additionally, the paper will also discuss one of these approaches in detail by analyzing two techniques or tools used under the approach (Wolcott, 1996). Grounded Theory The term ‘Grounded Theory’ refers to the explanation that is developed in an inductive manner from the corpus of data. If the approach is performed well and in an efficient manner, the resulting conclusions and theory would allow the explanation to fit perfectly into at least one of the datasets. As such, the grounded theory differs majorly from the grand theory, which does not make use of any data, thereby sometimes rendering it incapable of fitting or explaining any part of the data in a satisfying manner (Glaser & Strauss, 1977). Grounded theory makes use of the case perspective rather than studying thorough the analysis of variables. However, the extent to which the approach adheres to this strictly is almost impossible to demarcate and define. This would mean that the research effort would end up considering different cases ad wholes, within which the variables interact with each other to provide a certain set of outcomes. The case based perspective also tends to assume variables usually interact in a highly complex manner and is there highly unassuming of simple additive models that include techniques such as ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) (Brumblay, 1971). An orientation towards drawing comparisons is part and parcel of this case based approach. Under this, there can be cases where several variables seem to possess similar properties or patterns in spite of leading to different outcomes eventually. In the end, they can be compared to examine the areas where differences and divergences exist. This can also take note from the Mill method of differences that makes use of experimental design. On a similar note, cases that result in identical outcomes can be analyzed to see which conditions and properties are common amongst them, which will help identify the corresponding reasons for such behavior (Bal, 1997). Grounded theory has benefited immensely from contribution by Strauss (1987), which has consisted of a group of steps that must be executed carefully in order to ascertain the outcome of a theory as good and favorable. The process through which the theory has been constructed would help highlight it quality. This however contrasts with the more scientific approach with which a theory may be developed irrespective of whether it is devised through thinking, analogies or sheer luck. In all cases, the ability to explain the occurrence of new data and behavior signifies the quality of that theory. Researchers following the grounder theory to qualitative research are largely and predominantly concerned with the understandings and perceptions of the world and make use of categorization to focus on rendering them implicit. The basic course to adopting an approach based on the grounded theory is to repeatedly read an information source and identify and label variables as categories and properties simultaneously marking identified relationships among them. The efficiency with which such variables and their associated relationships are identified is known as ‘Theoretical sensitivity’, which is influenced by several things including one’s reading and understanding of the information and ability to use attained techniques enhance the underlying sensitivity (Dey, 1993). In any case, it is not required for the data to be textual in its entirety and may as well be interpretations based on interactions, behavior and events. Information obtained through grounded research is often recorded in field notes. Instead of begging the research by reasoning and formulation of a hypothesis, the data is initially collected and interesting observations are marked with the help of codes. These codes are then grouped into categories, which is then used to develop the theory. The grounder theory contradicts traditional approach to research which consists of developing the theoretical framework as part of the initial phases.’ Narratology As the name suggests, ‘Narratology’ is the study of narrative structures, the ways in which narration of subjects is performed and the different perspectives through which they affect one’s perception. In abstract words, Narratology can be to any well designed and well executed study of narrative. In terms of application, narratology is more a term and its use is often used with a sense of restriction. The word ‘Narratology’ has been adapted from the French language, specifically from the word ‘narratologie’ and has become one of the most popular methods used under qualitative analysis. Narratology as a study technique has been used since the times of Aristotle and was used in the modern times by Russian authors (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Grounded theory however follows a very definitive approach to performing research by allowing the research to be conducted in a series of stages. Narratology differs from the approach based on grounded theory where the former focuses more observation and encourages the use of notes and diary entries to highlight qualitative points. Narratology, on the other hand tends to have a strong relation with the structural quest for a system that depends on a formal description, which can be applied on any kind of narrative (Jaén, José & Landa, 1996). When applying the grounded theory, the researcher is obliged to apply his efforts towards identifying a few key anchors and subject areas that can be utilized for collecting the data. This is against narratology, which lays preliminary emphasis on defining structure rather than the source areas. Narratology helps examine the manner in which narratives structure our perception of the cultural perceptions in the world. Studying through narratives is essential as dealing with time and space within narrative forms one of the ground points with which meanings are interpreted. as such, a narrative is distinctive and far placed from a unified code that can utilized for experiencing the true meaning and is in fact a meta code that is a universal basis for transmitting messages about the true meaning of a shared reality. We are influenced by a number of narrative media such as paper, television, film etc. all these narrative forms help build a foundation that helps one go about analyzing popular culture. Grounded theory is not associated with emphasizing on any narrative structure. Rather, it focuses on developing concepts out of data collected through the key areas and works towards identifying commonalities that provides for grouping of the data sets into sections. Thus, narrative is different from grounding theory as it involves a time consuming process of assimilating information (Fetterman, 1998). Narratology is further complicated as it has been defined on several frameworks by theorists and has been encouraged by the structuralized background of narratology, which motivates theorists to categorize phenomena. This tendency has led to the evolution of a wide range of terms that complicate the nature of narratives. To a certain limit, designating any work as belonging to narratology has got to do more with theoretical standpoint against which it takes place. Owing to these categorizations, there is lesser importance on identifying any relationships and can be taken across one narrative to another. Classic narrative studies have often used non literary sources and is used most often in disciples associated with literary analysis and criticism such as sociolinguistic impact of storytelling or discourse analysis that analyze conversations in detail. On the other hand, the grounded theory provides for a categorization that helps construct a relevant theory arising out of the analysis of these categories (Hardy & Bryman, 2004). Ethnography The word ‘Ethnography’ comes from the Greek words ethnos meaning people and graphein meaning writing. Therefore, as the meaning of the constituting words suggests, Ethnography is a means of writing that studies people. In a more formal way, ethnography is a form of field study that allows a descriptive research of human perception and society. Ethnography is a holistic research approach that is based on the idea that a system’s parameters cannot be understood adequately by studying them independent of each other. As such, it contrastingly differs from either the grounding theory or narratology that attempt to study a concept by breaking into segments and studying each element individually (Ezzy, 2002). Ethnography has been in use since the ancient times when it was used primarily by travelers for recording their experiences in different lands on course of their journey. An academic stream such as the constructivist and relativist an approach are known to use ethnography as the primary method for qualitative research and is often regarded as a hallmark of discipline. This suggests that Ethnography is a rather specialized for of qualitative research against Grounded theory and Narratology in many ways. Both are applicable to a wider form of research and involve the collection of data and the subsequent interpretation. Such a phenomenon is generally not possible or updated in the case of studying human behavior and tendencies, which call for the need for the data to be fresh, first hand and updated. This also differs from the human perception element under narratology, as conclusions on perception are studied over a longer period of time and require a prolonged period of observation and analysis in order to arrive at a conclusion. Thus, the outcomes of Ethnographic based research studies may serve as inputs for the other two forms of studies in the future (Kindt & Müller, 2003). Ethnography has for long been regarded as a tool that is meant to provide a better design and outlook. It takes root from the core belief that people always tend to connect with great designs and projections as they feel inspired, provoked and entertained by a careful presentation. As such, ethnography has been used much more than as a mere form of analysis and interpretation. In fact, it is also used to validate its applicability and prove to be a utility for people. In order to be able to truly connect with people, there is a primary requirement to understand the intricate relationship the subject and how its is understood and perceived by others. Thus, unlike other approaches that simply aim t analyze, ethnography also makes attempts to analyze the manner in which others interpret the same thing or concept depending on their intuition and skill. Ethnography is known to inform detail as it can reveal a deep understanding of how people view things and make sense of their surroundings. As such, it is a research approach that bases its findings on observing people in a natural setting, which is quite different from traditional forms of research that use a more formally created research setting. When applied to study, ethnography helps researchers arrive at more convincing solutions and understands that people and cultures are very complex (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The approach therefore offers solutions to get past this wave of complexity and help unearth the underlying truth by letting the research see beyond perceptions and preconceptions. By doing so, ethnography is useful in displaying patterns of behavior within the context of the real world that can be understood in a rational and intuitive sense. Further, given the complexity of issues that it seeks to resolve, ethnography is a highly systematic process that facilitates the generation of useful ideas, which can arise simply by mere observation. Some of the most prominent insights evolve from a thorough analysis of data that has been collected systematically, through various sources such as audio, video, pictures etc. that have a contextual nature. As such, any view under ethnography is completely meaningful and is not thrust upon. Ethnography is therefore a long term approach and usually encompasses the study of a group, which usually involves active participation within that group. This is unique unlike other methods as it allows the researcher to be a part of the study instead of limiting them to studying it from outside (Wolcott, 1999). It allows a group to be explored and encourages activity within the group at an elevated level. Multiple methodologies are adopted to evaluate reactions that ultimately help at arriving to comprehensive conclusions. One of the considerations is to identify the interrelations within the group and can be used to explain interdependence of character and behaviors. In-depth interviews The preceding section has discussed the concept of ethnography in an introductory fashion. It can be seen from the discussion that of all the methods, ethnography encourages an active participation of the researcher within the study group and transforms the process from a research based to a role based technique. One of the popular techniques used to implement ethnography is in-depth interviews, which like focus groups, are used to provide insights into the nuances of what and how people think, what they feel and experience. In-depth interviewing lays emphasis on requisite interviewing skills, which essentially require the establishment of rapport that helps probe and prompt an interviewee in a discrete fashion. Prompting is also done in a manner that does not influence the answers from the respondent (Kindt & Müller, 2003). Under ethnographic interviews, respondents are usually required to provide a detailed description of their beliefs, perceptions, experiences and feelings on the subject of discussion. The interviewers’ role in this scenario is to act as a guide that oversees the discussion to traverse several relevant topics that are deemed important both from the interview as well as the respondent’s point of view (Strauss, 1987). Issues such as the language as well as the experiences of a respondent in correspondence to a particular event or phenomenon are studied intricately as part of this approach. In-depth interviews can also be highly specialized that helps create and retain focus on busy and hard to reach executives that may be important for the research effort. This depends on the ability to locate such relevant professionals and officials and to secure their permission and time to conduct such interviews. The approach requires seasoned demeanor in order to conduct the interviews with relevant ease. Case studies Another popular form of ethnographic approach to conducting research and analysis is by way of case studies. Case studies are used in several arenas be it social sciences or even related socially to a particular topic. Case study techniques are a unique way to dispense past experiences of individuals and organizations to newer generations especially in business studies. Essentially speaking, a case study is an intense examination of an incident, group, organization, community or any other entity whose existence and experiences over a period of time is of importance, interest and relevance. It also includes the use of surveys, historical analysis and experiments that allow it to be studies from various standpoints (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007). Instead of trying to sample a given problem and use a rigid approach to examining the associated variables, case studies allow an in-depth analysis and allow the researcher to examine several what-if possibilities. The various events within the case are looked upon in a systematic manner and the relevant outcomes are analyzed and argued. Such arguments often lead to a very detailed and precise understanding of the subject and using it to examine other related questions. As such, case studies are used to semaphore and ascertain the relevance and credibility of hypotheses. Case studies are therefore investigative in nature and tend to be based on an empirical research strategy and are based on evidence and arguments to substantiate claims. As such, case studies do tend to employ a few quantitative methods in order to arrive at arguments and is often referred to as an approach that lies between methodical paradigms and data analysis techniques (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007). Data Management The problem with both the above approaches is the huge amount of data that is often collected and any analysis can lead to confusion and lack of any credible oversight over the outcomes without the application of a suitable management technique. Interviews can immensely benefit from arriving at faster decisions and inferences by allowing the entire procedure to follow a standardized approach. The interview has to be based on a proper structure that has been prepared to outline every required dimension of the interviewee. This can be achieved by preparing a recording sheet or using a relevant software such as Monarch, which allows the interviewer to prepare a general outline for further examination of the collected data by extracting, mining and analysis the outlined input. This could include details such as education, experiences, skills, special achievements etc. The advantage of defining these fields is that such an arrangement allows the instant application of additional analysis techniques over large sets of interviews to not only identify the suitable patterns, but also to identify the requisite areas where changes or improvements can be brought in (Bryman & Burgess, 1994). In the case of case studies, the researcher sometimes ends up with so much information that it provides no clear direction and confuses the user on which approach to take further. In order to overcome this, the initial strategy is to identify and document the areas where the researcher wants to concentrate upon. Any data that is encountered should be compared with this set to determine if it falls within the defined context (Bliss, Monk & Ogborn, 2001). With a clear idea on this, the data flowing in not only restricted, but also streamlined to fit the interest areas. Apart from this, the researcher also needs to be clear about the types of data that will be stored or documented and the methods which will be used to analyze them. With the data set ready, a decision can be taken to see if the chosen methods will work or not and make a decision to use any alternative techniques in case the existing ones do not suffice. With the data and the techniques in place, the analysis can be applied that will provide the required outcomes. The visual depiction of managing large data is displayed in the following Figure 2: As the figure above displays, large data from raw collection gathering should be funneled into a data management tool in order for the data to be manageable for the qualitative study. One of the best tools suited for handling large sets of data is NVivo and as such has been used extensively in research studies. One of the main features of this software is the ability to collect, store, segregate and sort different types of data in the form of audio, video, text, pdf or word. Additionally, the software allows for a time based and rather flexible analysis of files including audio and video resources. The software has been developed by relying on Microsoft based platforms, which helps users adapt and learn using the software very quickly. Users can also benefit from importing and exporting data across several formats and can use the software as a reliable data store manager. All these features make NVivo a valuable asset in any research study. The usefulness is further enhanced by the provision for handling several languages that helps in translation and conversion across regions and countries that is augmented with charting and analysis features, which users can make use of to great effect. Conclusion The preceding chapters have discussed on the several techniques of qualitative research that are widely employed in research studies both in academia as well as the corporate world. Qualitative research, unlike the quantitative form, is not concerned about numbers and calculations. Instead, qualitative research is used to answer potential questions on phenomenon that affect the pattern of human behavior and interaction and identify the key parameters that influence and characterize them. The grounding theory has been described as depending on the use of the case based approach to answering questions on social aspects while the use of Ethnography helps provide a descriptive explanation of human behavior and perception. The use of narratology brings the researcher and the subject under study into close contact and helps establish a bond that can reveal several interesting details. With the help of these methods, researchers and corporations can aim to enhance in many more directions apart from the quest for improvement and productivity. Additional References 1. Grbich, C. (2007), Qualitative data analysis: an introduction. London: Liturgical Press. 2. Strauss, A. L. & Corbin, J. M. (1990), Basics of qualitative research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques. London: Sage. 3. Wolcott, H. F. (1996), Transforming qualitative data: description, analysis, and interpretation. London: Sage. 4. Hardy, M. A. & Bryman, A. (2004), Handbook of Data Analysis. New York: Wiley. 5. Bliss, J., Monk, M., & Ogborn, J. (2001), Qualitative data analysis for educational research: a guide to uses of systemic networks. University of Michigan. 6. Bryman, A. & Burgess, R. G. (1994), Analyzing qualitative data. 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