Critical Evaluation for the Presentation of Research Data in Architecture - Coursework Example

Quantitative Research Introduction This report is aimed at evaluating qualitative techniques that can be used to best present research data synonymous, and appropriately in Architecture, by demonstrating how project research will be undertaken, and the approach to this research is underpinned by current thinking in research methodology and philosophy (Miles & Huberman, 1994: 11). Therefore, the report focuses on current or anticipated research approaches, justification of these approaches and the assessment of their relevance in the context of current thinking Architecture. Qualitative Research: Context, Philosophy, Approach and, Strategy This section presents the main underpinning theory for composing a research methodology based on qualitative methods, in dealing with issues of context, philosophy, approach and strategy (Miles & Huberman, 1994: 12). Qualitative Research: Context There has been a substantial growth in qualitative inquiry within social sciences over the past two decades. Miles and Huberman (1994: 1) suggest a tripling of papers and find evidence of significant growth in academic texts. The reasons for this may be clear, as Cassell and Symon (1995: 2) point out that research in social sciences is mostly concerned with people, organizations, and social interactions, and is not well disposed to positivist / scientific philosophy. There are some risks and challenges facing the researcher adopting this methodology. Some academics are dismissive of the methodology, mostly on grounds of the validity of the approach and consequently the reliability of the findings; whereas, there are arguments that the methods are non-scientific, open to personal opinions, biases, and subjective interpretations. Qualitative Research: Philosophy Research philosophy entails the examination of beliefs, both our own, as well as those of others, on how knowledge is developed. A discussion on research philosophy usually commences with a consideration of two opposite research perspectives, positivism and phenomenology as elaborated by Saunders (2008: 120). There are clear rules and statistical procedures, which can be followed to produce objective and generalisable findings in quantitative techniques; on the other hand, qualitative research has to tackle issues of subjectivity, and social construction, which are concepts far more difficult to pin down with basic rules and procedures, and where results may be more open to interpretation (Miles, 1994: 591). These issues lead to the important areas that a qualitative research design must tackle, namely; validity, reliability, and bias. According to Miles et al (1994) the task for the qualitative researcher is to build in robustness (will the design stand up in different and difficult situations) and rigor (will the design demonstrate comprehensive attention to detail) into the research design. This will involve careful attention to planning, data collection, data analysis and presentation. These issues will be considered within units 9 and 10 when we go on to look at the process and procedures involved in planning, data collection, analysis and presentation. In quantitative based studies, a key objective is often to design the study to precise statistical rules so that results from samples can be generalised to a wider population. In qualitative research, this can not be claimed. Results are subject to interpretation. The real value of qualitative research according to Thomas (2004: 131) lies not in generalisation but particularisation. In other words, the richness and knowledge derives from understanding a situation or case, in greater depth. Quantitative Research: Approach The implications for the research process are now examined with a look at the processes for inductive and deductive approaches to research. Within the deductive approach, research flows from developing a single hypothesis or multiple hypotheses concerning the association or relationship between data. Often such studies seek to establish cause and affect relationships between data variables. Statistical tests or controlled experiments follow, with a view to confirming or rejecting the hypothesis. Following statistical protocols enables the researcher to present conclusions, which claim to be predictive, or generalisable to a wider population (Thomas, 2004: 131). Within the inductive approach, the process assumes that the outcomes from the theory review will present a focus, not on statistical relationships between data but more on the nature and understanding of the subject. Themes and factors may emerge that are identified as significant (often referred to as critical factors) and these form the basis for the research. The emphasis is on depth and understanding in social contexts, not statistical measurement of relationships. Quantitative Research: Strategy Research strategy is about the choice, to determine appropriate methods to answer the emerging research questions and to form these into a research design and develop research instruments (Bryman & Ben, 2008: 113). Research questions in qualitative studies will be concerned with depth, meaning and understanding in social contexts and will follow an inductive approach, within a phenomenological interpretive philosophy. There is the possibility of utilizing mixed methods within the context of an inductive approach, employing one or more qualitative techniques, or including some quantitative methods, for example, surveys or experiments. Bryman and Ben (2008: 115) suggest in this way triangulation of results may be achieved, where findings from one source or method may be cross checked and contrasted with those from another. Some authors have suggested that utilizing a mixed method strategy can add to the robustness of the research design, with strengths and weaknesses being better balanced and complimented. The Qualitative Research Process Part 1: Strategy, Planning and Data Collection The aim of this section is to consider the research process for qualitative research, and, therefore, deals specifically with qualitative strategies, planning, and data collection. Strategy There are various strategies and methods, which may be, more specifically developed for studies and these may normally be identified from the literature review; in order to choose the best strategy and method, it is wise to keenly, identity the strategy, and research on its advantages, as well as its disadvantages (Thomas, 2004: 131). Planning Careful consideration and justification are necessary for each study, in order to build a position which may later be defended in the PhD viva. Considering that the outcome in qualitative research will not be generalisable (predictive of a population), but rather will be as Thomas (2004: 131) describes particularisable (the value lies in the deep understanding of the unit, case, or individual, under study). Sampling is, therefore, normally based on selection (not randomized), and this brings into discussion the merits of the selection, the selection process, and judgment of the researcher. A major concern for the researcher is to be aware of the risk of bias in the selection process, and take steps to ensure that the sample can be justified as representative in the study context. Before entering the field, it is vital that the researcher, and in the context of a PhD study, the supervisory team, are confident that they have a defendable sample. It will be an issue within the final viva. It is imperative for a vital preparation is done before entering the field to trace the history, background and context to the case, individual, or unit to be researched. This saves unnecessary time in the field being taken up seeking information which is already published or available. Qualitative research is very time demanding, and there are clearly serious issues in involving respondents. Aligned with availability and access the researcher also needs to consider, for example, how ethical arrangements might impact the study. Within the NHS, for example, there are extremely precise guidelines that must be followed, and increasingly large corporations in the public and private sectors have well developed procedures that must be followed. The process for getting approval for access may be long and difficult, and so must be identified early (Saunders & Lewis, 2008: 124). Data Collection There are different types of data collection that can be employed when conducting this process, but in this case, conducting interviews tends to be the best option. A robust qualitative interview according to King (Cassell and Symon, 1995: 102) will have a low degree of structure imposed by the researcher; a preponderance of open style questions; and a focus on situations and actions in the world of the interviewee. These characteristics give weight to the interview taking place within the interviewees natural environment, thus affording the researcher the additional benefits of understanding context, observing behaviors and the environment, and facilitating the use of examples and evidence gathering. King argues that even natural interruptions that occur within the field can be useful for the researcher to understand better the environment and context. Kings view of a low degree of structure is supported by Thomas (2004: 162 -170). He discusses the issues involved in preparing an interview plan or schedule. He suggests that it should not be in the form of a checklist of questions (more relevant to survey work) but designed to facilitate a conversation with the purpose. He advocates the use of key themes (emerging as the critical factors for research from the literature review), supported by prompts and probes (to guide and assist the researcher). Similar ideas for developing frameworks can be found in Miles and Huberman (1994: 16-38). We present below an example of an interview plan, and interview questioning techniques which we have adapted and developed from interviewing methods described by Cooper and Branthwaite (1997: 141). Developing trust, over extended time periods may simply be impractical in many research situations which are time constrained, so the researcher has to consider strategies to capture the information needed within the limitations of the interview. It suggests that the researcher can prepare a questioning and interpretation strategy based on four levels, each incremental level becoming progressively more difficult. Aligned with the interview plan, Cooper and Branthwaite (1997: 143) suggest that some attention to questions and approach may be useful; for example, recognizing that different questions present different degrees of difficulty, and that the researcher can, therefore, devise strategies to cope better in the interview setting. The Qualitative Research Process Part 2: Data Analysis and Data Presentation This section considers the final stages in the research process i.e. Data Analysis and Data Presentation, and, therefore, reflects on issues relating to recording and transcribing, summarizing data, analysis of data, drawing conclusions, constructing solutions, testing and further research (Saunders & Lewis, 2008: 135). In qualitative research, the rules regarding data analysis and presentation are less clear; this puts more emphasis on the researcher to demonstrate robustness and rigor in the process chosen. There are general principles based on an adapted process model. Recording and Transcribing There is no prescriptive or one best way of transcribing that is advisable to the researcher to follow, although there are some useful hints and tips by Bryman and Bell (2008: 254) on interviewing in qualitative research. However, when choosing a method for recording and transcribing, a researcher should look the advantages and disadvantages that the method contains. The main qualities should be that a method should be time saving, eliminates the need for notes taking, allows focus and concentration on interview and provides a permanent record. We present below an example illustrating some of the main issues. Summarizing data in the main text (data reduction) Considering that presenting qualitative data is difficult since there are no precise rules and conventions that may be followed in quantitative analysis; the qualitative researcher has to follow general guidance from a variety of sources, and keeping in mind the study objectives, the research philosophy and strategy underpinning the study, and the need in all qualitative research to demonstrate rigor and robustness. An excellent general discussion of presentation issues is available in Bryman and Bell (2008: 154), and Miles and Huberman (1994: 241). Whist data reduction through summarizing is perhaps the most commonly applied presentation method for qualitative research, Miles and Huberman present that there are many different ways to present data and give examples of use of metrics, diagrams, structures and pattern matching (which can be used as alternatives or in conjunction with summarizing methods). Analysis of data Presentation of summaries with reference to transcripts may be the limit of the analysis for some researchers since it leaves the reader to make their own further interpretations and judge the relevance for their own contexts. However, in some disciplines like Business disciplines, it is becoming more normal to conduct further analysis so as to apply the researchers own interpretation of the data and perhaps go on to construct and develop theory. Examples of different methods for further reducing and analyzing and presenting data can be found in Miles and Huberman (1994: 231). Apart from that, examples within specialist texts dealing with the various particular research strategies e.g. in case study, grounded theory, and discourse analysis; tend to be a useful reference point. Drawing conclusions, constructing solutions, and further research Practice in qualitative research is again variable, and there are no strict rules that must be followed. Within business disciplines, it is normal practice within a PhD thesis to expect the researcher to develop the analysis further and suggest a summary of the main conclusions; what was discovered, and what are the immediate implications for the study sample, and possible wider implications for others (subject to interpretation). Some researchers may wish to engage further with respondents and other experts (before final writing up) to review and check the findings (within a focus group, presentation, or discussion). This can add rigor to the process (Saunders & Lewis, 2008: 251). In drawing conclusions, the researcher must be careful not to imply that the results are generalisable, but rather that the strength lies in the results being particularisable to the case and respondents in the study. Many students go on to suggest or create new models, which address some of the issues identified, and provide a basis for further discussion and a focus for future research. It is considered acceptable practice at the end of a thesis to reflect on the outcomes and discuss further research areas (Saunders & Lewis, 2008: 254). Conclusion The first section i.e. "Qualitative Research: Context, Philosophy, Approach and, Strategy" considers qualitative research as a methodology for studies at post-graduate and PhD levels. It has presented the main underpinning theory for composing a research methodology based on qualitative methods, in dealing with issues of context, philosophy, approach and strategy. It has argued that qualitative research is relevant and foremost and growing within social sciences, which are largely concerned with people and institutions in social contexts. We have presented that qualitative research aligns with a philosophy of phenomenology; epistemologically it is interpretive in nature, socially constructed, inductive and subjective, and ontologically it implies that there is no single truth or reality (Bryman & Bell, 2008: 159). This presents the qualitative researcher with challenges in dealing with issues of reliability, validity, and bias within the research design. We discuss the inductive approach associated with qualitative research and finish with some suggested research strategies. The following go on to consider practical application of qualitative research designs looking further at strategy, before moving on to planning, data collection, analysis, and presentation. The following section i.e. "The Qualitative Research Process Part 1: Strategy, Planning and Data Collection" have considered the research process for qualitative research. Unlike quantitative research, process is less prescriptive and influenced by the field of study. The qualitative researcher must, therefore, draw on some general rules of practice, but also from best practice emerging from their field of study. Drawn from a number of sources we identify a generic process, the principal stages in the process and main activities within the stages. This unit deals specifically with qualitative strategies, planning, and data collection. Within the strategies section, we have presented examples of commonly employed strategies and some further examples which are field of study related (Saunders & Lewis, 2008: 250). Within the planning section, we have considered and made some suggestions for preparation, background data gathering, gaining access, and dealing with ethical issues. Within the data collection section, we presented examples of preparing an interview plan and developing an interview design and questioning strategy. Unit 10 will consider the remaining stages in the Qualitative Research Process; Data Analysis, and Data Presentation. This final section i.e. "The Qualitative Research Process Part 2: Data Analysis and Data Presentation" consider the final stages in the research process; Data Analysis and Data Presentation. It has examined the final stages in the research process; Data Analysis and Data Presentation. It has discussed issues of recording and transcribing, summarizing data, analysis of data, drawing conclusions, constructing solutions, testing and further research (Miles & Huberman, 1994: 120). Examples have been presented drawing from published studies in the Business discipline. Presentation of data may vary across the disciplines and researchers may need to be adaptive to practices that are closely aligned with their chosen research strategy and accepted within their field of study. Bibliography Bryman, A., & Bell, E. 2008. Business Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cassell, C., & Symon, G. 1995. Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. 2005. The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Holden, M. T., & Lynch, P. 2004. Choosing the Appropriate Methodology: Understanding Research Philosophy. The Marketing Review, 8(4):397-409. Miles, B. M., & Huberman, A. M. 1994. Qualitative Data Analysis. New York: Sage Publications. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. 2008. Research Methods for Business Students. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. Silverman, D. 2004. Doing Qualitative Research: A Practical Handbook. New York: Sage Publications. Trochim, W. M. K., & Donnelly, J. P. 2008. The Research Methods Knowledge Base. 3rd Edition. Mason: Cengage Learning. Wisker, G. 2008. The Postgraduate Research Handbook. 2nd Edition. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Wooffitt, R. 2005. Conversation Analysis and Discourse Analysis. London: Sage Publications. Read More