Perspectives on Human Sexuality - Essay Example

Perspectives on Human Sexuality Wheelan and Bolin’s book on human sexuality is different from other books on the same because it offers an anthropological perspective of the subject. This enables a reading of the subject from a slightly different focus, where various dimensions of human sexuality are integrated, such as evolutionary, cross cultural and bio-cultural dimensions. Patterns of sexuality occurring in various cultures are examined on par, rather than assuming that the western model is the dominant one and other cultures are the “others”. This book offers up the interesting possibility that other cultures may consider Western sexuality to be odd or abnormal, in much the same way as earlier writers on sexuality have tended to accept the Western model as normal, while sexual patterns in other cultures are viewed as strange and exotic. This book is very useful to a reader because it offers a more composite human framework of sexuality rather than a model dominated by Western thought patterns. The authors view sexuality as a primitive heritage which has evolved over the course of time, both physically and behaviorally, as a means to cope with the changes taking place in the immediate environment. The focus of this book is this on the elements that all human being share in common as one species rather than in highlighting and focusing upon the differences in sexual behavioral patterns and attitudes across different countries in the world. Such differences, even where they occur, are to be understood and appreciated and used as a means to enhance out understanding of ourselves as different yet related groups within the same species. 2. This book also goes into an indepth discussion of sexual behavior in human beings. It covers many of the important issues such as the anatomy of the male and female bodies, puberty and adolescence and the sexual changes that occur during this period, pregnancy and childbirth and as well as issues related to the nature of sexuality as it changes with ageing. The book also discussed sexual positions and how sexual foreplay and mating patterns have developed in the human race over the course of our evolution from primates. What is fresh and different about this book however is that it examines these issues from an anthropological perspective, where the cultural context is also taken into consideration rather than viewing sexual progression over the life cycle as being an isolated event. In describing the development of sexuality and especially the institution of marriage, the book focuses upon the evolution of the institution of marriage as a means to protect the young. It discusses various types of families and why they were formulated in the context of the kind of society within which they were formed. For example, polyandrous marriages were approved and sanctioned in societies where family landholding units had to be preserved and where females were found in much fewer numbers as compared to men. Polygamous unions were encouraged in societies where the primary function of man was viewed as that of propagating the species, while the primary function of the woman was to unction as the caretaker of the species. Other important issues covered in this book include differences in sexual orientation and the conflict arising between the physical attributes of gender and the sexual orientation. The book presents various theories to explain how and why a non heterosexual orientation may develop in a person. But it presents new additional material on the subject of sexual orientation by defining what is normal in accordance with the precedents established in the mammalian and primate world. The book also goes into the issue of sexually transmitted diseases, especially AIDS, examining the responses to the disease as they occur within different social groups. The progression of the disease requires social support and the levels to which this may be provided varies in different societies. Hence, this book discusses many of the issues common in other books on human sexuality, but from the interesting perspective of anthropology, viewing individuals as a part of the human species rather than as conforming to the Western model, which other authors have espoused. 3. One of the positive sex positive ethical systems the authors refer to is the grooming and care taking that takes place among primates as a precursor to sexual activity (Wheeler and Bolin, 1999:46). This is replicated in human beings who have translated grooming into stroking and patting, with cleansing and grooming constituting a part of foreplay which precedes sexual activity. This promotes healthy habits such as cleanliness. The development of marriage as a means to protect children is yet another positive sex related ethical aspect identified in this book. The authors have questioned the notion of acceptance of heterosexual behavior as the norm. They have questioned the negative commutation associated with same sex behavior in Western society. Examining this issue from a cultural and historical perspective in various societies, they have pointed out that anthropologists have documented a widespread incidence of all kinds of sexual behavior cross culturally in various societies and this also includes homosexual and bisexual behavioral patterns. Wheeler and Bolan, 1999:315). They have pointed out that the negative commutation associated with homosexual behavior is largely the result of conditioning by society. They state that human sexuality is innate and its external representation is a combination of our biological and learned experiences. On this basis, the negative associations with homosexuality and blaming parents for homosexual tendencies in their children may not be tenable. The authors in particular have pointed out the difficulties gay people experience in parenting and establishing families, although they are crusading for their rights. Wheelan and Bolin’s book looks at sexual orientation from the perspective of its long existence in various cultures as a natural phenomenon and questions its rejection in western societies. One of the negative aspects in this book is the question of abortion. According to the authors, “in colonial days, a fetus was not defined as alive until the onset of quickening or fetal movement, usually detected in the fourth month.”(Wheeler and Bolan, 1999:160). While this allows more scope for the choice of the woman as an ethical option, it also means that there may be more women opting for abortion due to the belief that a fetus is not technically alive till the fourth month. 4. This book offers scope for interesting studies to be conducted on the institution of marriage from the basis of its primary anthropological purpose, that of protecting children. Child birth is viewed in many cultures as a means to culturally create and extend kinship. Wheelan and Bolin in their book have also pointed out the role of the extended family in performing the caring role. I would specifically like to examine this issue in the context of the African American community. One of the aspects notable in this community is the large incidence of children who are being raised by single mothers. There is a painful lack of a father in most of these families and the effects of this deprivation appear to be manifesting themselves in the lack of discipline in the community, with more and more young men taking to a violent life. The hypothesis I would like to explore in my study is whether the absence of significant male figures in their lives during the growing up process may be a causal factor in the tendency to violence in young African American males. The girls on the contrary, grow up to be caretakers of their children, with most of them getting pregnant at an early age and being relegated with the duty of raising their children alone. Undoubtedly, the impact of poverty may have an effect on the criminal history of young African American males. But the focus of my study would be the impact of the absence of a male role model in the lives of these young men and whether this impacts upon their sexuality. The need to engage in violent criminal activity may well be the need to affirm a male identity that seems to be threatened since young African American males grow up in predominantly female householders with their fathers and other male relatives generally doing prison time. I would choose the ethnographic case study method for my study because it appears best suited to this research question I intend to pose in the study: Is the absence of a father during the growing up years conducive to the development of violent behavior in young African American males? The impact of the absence of a father can only be examined over a long time duration and a case study approach allows me to explore the subjective reactions of participants in great and close detail. I would identify about ten young African American boys mostly from the south western States, and conduct periodic interviews and observations of their conduct and lifestyles until they reach their teen years. A major part of my study would also include observation of their sexual behavior. I would supplement my observations with case notes, as well as interviews conducted with other members of the child’s family, friends, teachers and others in his immediate vicinity, to get an idea of the child’s development. Based upon my findings, I would be able to arrive at some correlations of how closely the absence of a father and a male sexual role model is reflected in the tendency towards violent behavior and the need to assert masculinity through such behavioral patterns. 5. One of the most significant issues addressed in this book which relates to media coverage of the issue is that of homosexual marriages and their adoption of children. The authors have discussed the acceptance of homosexuality in other cultures as opposed to Western society where heterosexual behavior is accepted as the norm and a different sexual orientation is not easily accepted due to the “cognitive rigidity in the formation of sexual identity boundaries.” (Whelehan and Bolin, 1999: 315). Gays and lesbians want to live and work openly with their partners and be accepted economically and socially in the same manner as straight couples are. In their book, the authors have pointed out how couples in homosexual relationships face many of the same problems of adjustment and communication as heterosexual couples do and they learn how to deal with their problems and find a mid way ground where they can compromise. But one of the areas where homosexual couples experience a significant lack is in the creation of a family unit. The post World War II era gave rise to the ideal adult sexual standard of a heterosexual, monogamous married couple with two children; the woman being a full time housewife and the man working outside the home. With the passage of years, peoples’ behavior has changed but not their attitudes. As the authors point out, ‘lesbians stand a greater chance of parenting their biological children than do gays.” (Wheelan and Bolin, 1997: 326). Where the question of adoption of children arises, the attitudes of society have not advanced to the level where gay couples can easily adopt children. It is very difficult for gays and lesbians to adopt children, gain custody or visiting rights for children from their marriages. The authors offer the view that parenting and taking care of children may not be a viable option at present for gay men. They have the option to either pass in a heterosexual marriage, gain visiting rights to their children if divorced, or alternatively find a woman prepared to bear their child and let them raise it. None of these options offer the ideal that gay couples seek, of being able to freely adopt and raise children, die to the predominantly negative attitudes prevailing in society. This is also an issue that is currently being debated in the media, because the legalization of gay marriages in some states like California has caused intense controversy, since homosexuality is still viewed with disfavor in many sections of American society. A Florida court recently upheld a State law that banned gays from adopting children, on the grounds that it was best for a child to be reared by a married father and a mother (Lewin, 2001). The issue of homosexuality and the battle being waged by gay men and lesbian women to fight for their rights has been extensively covered in the media and still is a controversial topic as State laws have been changing to accommodate the concerns of the homosexual community. In addition, Anderson and Adley (1997) prepared an extensive bibliography including several sources of books, journal articles and other material that is available on gay and lesbian issues, including issues related to marriage, family and adoption of children by homosexual partners. 6. Yes, I would challenge the author on the question of the life of the fetus only kicking in at around four months. I feel that this is a most unfortunate assertion to make, particularly from anthropological experts. By stating clearly that historical belief in the colonial era - when women were much more repressed – was that a fetus was only technically alive in the fourth month and the second trimester of pregnancy, this serves as an encouragement for more women to take to abortion. It must be remembered that abortion is a strong, ethical issue and involves the taking of another life. While Roe v Wade has established conclusively that the question of whether or not to have an abortion is a woman’s choice, this has not necessarily left the door open for women to indiscriminately choose to have an abortion. In view of the extreme opposition to abortion which still exists in the United States, women opt for abortion only when there are extenuating circumstances or when they cannot afford to have children due to severe economic hardships. Such a decision is also not taken lightly, because there is always the consciousness that a life is being destroyed, which functions as a significant deterrent. This is why I would take issue with the authors of the book on their statement that fetal life kicks in only at four months. When such a view is widely propagated and discussed in the media, it would eliminate much of the concomitant guilt and hesitation women still feel about having an abortion. They would then opt for abortion in much larger numbers, thereby violating the ethical parameters that still remain in existence where this issue is concerned. If a fetus is viewed as not having life for three months, women will be encouraged to engage in irresponsible sexual behavior because they can have an abortion without it necessarily weighing on their conscience – since technically an fetus has no life. I feel that the authors could have left out this aspect altogether or qualified their statement by adding some qualifier that such a belief in the colonial time existed but abortion was not so prevalent because women did not enjoy the freedoms then that they do now. 7. Both of the authors of this book are well qualified to write it, being experts in anthropology who are practicing professors in the subject. Patricia Whelehan is the Professor of Anthropology at State University of New York at Potsdam. She is also actively involved in AIDS education and is the AIDS Education Coordinator at the College campus. Apart from this book on human sexuality she has also co-edited “Women and Health: Cross Cultural Perspectives.” The co-author of the book, Ann Bolin, is an Associate Professor of Anthropology at Elon College. She has also authored another book on her own earlier, which is titled “In Search of Eve: Transsexual rites of Passage”. In addition, Ms Bolin also serves as the editor of the Journal of Sex Research. As a result, both of these authors possess a solid base of knowledge, not merely in anthropology but also in the fields of sexual behavior and research. These authors use feminist research methods and theories and have combined forces and their strong knowledge of anthropology and sexuality to present a major bio-cultural book on human sexuality, which clearly distinguishes culture specific sexual behavior from the sexual patterns and behavior that all human being share as a common species. Their book also decenters Western constructions of sexuality. Since both these authors are also teaching the subject of anthropology at their respective colleges, they are in a strong position to be thoroughly informed and well acquainted with their subject, so that they are able to write on this subject with authority and clarity. Bibliography * Anderson, C.W., and Adley, A.R, 1997. “Gay and Lesbian Issues: Abstracts of the Psychological and Behavioral Literature, 1985-1996”, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. * Lewin, Tamar, 2001. “Court backs Florida ban on adoption by gays”, The New York Times, August 31, 2001. Retrieved October 19, 2008 from: http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A03EEDD1330F932A0575BC0A9679C8B63 * Whelehan, Patricia and Bolin, Anne, 1999. “Perspectives on Human Sexuality”, Suny Press Read More