The Human Sexuality: Defining and Understanding an Important Segment of Human Life - Research Paper Example

ID] THE HUMAN SEXUALITY: DEFINING AND UNDERSTANDING AN IMPORTANT SEGMENT OF HUMAN LIFE A research has found that women who love chocolate seem to have better love lives (Wolfe 2009: Appendix 1). Chocolate has been claimed one of the best aphrodisiacs in the romance world, and women are particularly fond of chocolate. Humans show marked variation and depth in the way they perceive their surroundings. Sexual intimacy and orientation is also a product of such factors. Interestingly, food may have a very strong impact on the way humans may perceive their sexual lives, and content or discontent with it. The function of procreation has been embedded by nature into every living organism, from the virus to the whale. This function in the human society, takes up a much larger context and meaning. Indeed sexuality or the process of procreation remains one of the most profound experiences of the human life. However, in the human society, sexual intimacy has grown to become a cultural phenomenon (Cheek 2003: 21). The sexual approach and orientation has become one of the defining features of a human society due to the enormous ways humans perceive them and how they influence different values, cultures and ethics in a society. Human sexuality therefore, is not simply an act of procreation. It is a guide and a process that defines who we are, what our roles are, and how we use this trait as a defining segment of our personality, life and social behavior. Human sexuality therefore, should be considered through different contexts in order to understand its true complexity. DEFINING THE BASICS: WHAT IS SEX The single word sex has come to denote many areas of life and concepts in humans. The Merriam Webster Dictionary defines sex in the following terms “Definition of SEX 1: either of the two major forms of individuals that occur in many species and that are distinguished respectively as female or male especially on the basis of their reproductive organs and structures (Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online 2010) 2: the sum of the structural, functional, and behavioral characteristics of organisms that are involved in reproduction marked by the union of gametes and that distinguish males and females 3a : sexually motivated phenomena or behavior (Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online 2010) b : Definition of SEXUAL INTERCOURSE 1: heterosexual intercourse involving penetration of the vagina by the penis : coitus 2: intercourse (as anal or oral intercourse) that does not involve penetration of the vagina by the penis (Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online 2010) 4 Definition of GENITALIA the organs of the reproductive system; especially : the external genital organs” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online 2010) Sex is therefore a cultural phenomenon, which extends from personal liking and disliking to cultural customs. Sex is not only considered in the terms of procreating or entertainment. Sex is the basis of some of the most significant human traditions such as marriage, which is not a concept among animals (Frayser and Whitby 1995: 13). It is one of the prime inspirations in human creativity and spirituality. Sex is the manner of release of energies from the human mind and body, while at the same time is the center of some of the most heinous crimes in the human society. Sex remains a tool of power, which men and women practice over each other. Sex has been at the center of defining many religious and moral grounds of human behavior (Frayser and Whitby 1995: 27). Sex has for some time, been the center of many theories in psychology, especially the work of Sigmund Freud (Frayser and Whitby 1995: 36). Therefore, when considering the topic of human sexuality, one must be aware of the depth and levels of human behavior that are influenced by it (Frayser and Whitby 1995: 39). WHAT IS HUMAN SEXUALITY Although initially, human sexuality may be considered only on the physical level of procreation and intimacy, it has far deeper meanings. Human sexuality is a fact as well as concept. It is a fact due to its physical presence and need by the human body, and the orientation of the body towards it. As a concept, it is the way we look at ourselves and those around us and how it defines our roles in our society (Issues in Human Sexuality, A Statement by the House of Bishops 1991: 6). Therefore, human sexuality is essentially an expression of our biological, psychological, social, philosophical and cultural thoughts and values (Byne and Parsons 1993: 229 and 234). In includes within itself a wide range of behaviors, processes, medical issues pertaining to sex and sexual health, psychological approach, liking and orientation towards sex, cultural, political, legal, philosophical, moral, ethical, theological views and likes, and spiritual and religious connotations involved within (Greenborg, Bruess and Conklin 2010: 4). Although human sexuality has remained a central part and feature of the society since its beginning, it was only in the 19th century that actual discussions on sexuality and issues pertaining to it started being discussed. Religion and conservative cultural values prevalent in many parts of the world prevented human sexuality to be taken as a subject, or even being discussed. It was later on through learning and scientific research that the implications of human sexuality start to emerge (Bancroft 2009: 336). The biological data, the psychological perspectives pertaining to human sexual behavior, and the social implications and uses were discussed for the very first time. This area of anthropology still is in its initial stages of development, and more research is underway to understand the true impact and implications of sexuality on person and societies. (Bolin and Whelehan 1999: 3). Sexuality has a very important bearing on the way humans see, perceive, and react to the world around them. It also strongly influences their behavior towards other men and women. The effect of the brain on the human sexuality can be seen in the different research associations found among particular brain functions and sexual orientation. For example, left handed orientation is more likely to be found among gay or lesbian people (Bahlburg 1984: 377 and 397). Gay people are likely to show better object location memory, verbal fluency and scent perceptions respectively. The chief biological area involved is the anterior hypothalamus, which has been shown to strongly influence the male sexual behavior, both in animals and in humans (Bahlburg 1984: 377 and 397). FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION Each person behaves in a certain way when considering sexual relationships and preferences. This concept is known as sexual orientation. Sexual orientation is defined as “one’s erotic, romantic and affectional attraction to the same gender, to the opposite gender, or to both” (Greenberg, Bruess and Conklin 2010: 354). This is in direct relation with how a person perceives him or herself as a sexual being, which has been termed sexual image. Sexual orientation and identity helps in identifying a person’s sexual preference, meaning which gender a person may prefer to have sexual and intimate relations with (Greenberg, Bruess and Conklin 2010: 354). Many factors are said to contribute towards sexual orientation, but there is very limited evidence to confirm this. The implicated factors are biological and genetic makeup, the societal norms and patterns, and the psychological makeup and approach towards sex. This sexual orientation then determines whether a person is homo or heterosexual, bisexual or transgender (Bolin and Whelehan 1999: 318). Initially, any sexual orientation beyond heterosexualism was considered as wrong, immoral and abnormal psychologically (Continuum of Human Sexuality nd: 2). However, many societies are now beginning to accept these differences as human diversity. These decisions in gender orientation are also affected by the person’s image of self and sexual identity and society’s perception of gender and the roles they play (Continuum of Human Sexuality nd: 2). Kinsey in his researches was able to devise a table illustrating a range of sexual orientations found in humans. His table was initially put under extensive criticism, however, now it is used as a helpful tool in determining the sexual orientation of a person. This table is as follows. Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale Criteria 0- Exclusively heterosexual with no homosexual 1- Predominantly heterosexual, only incidentally homosexual 2- Predominantly heterosexual, but more than incidentally homosexual 3- Equally heterosexual and homosexual 4- Predominantly homosexual, but more than incidentally heterosexual 5- Predominantly homosexual, only incidentally heterosexual 6- Exclusively homosexual (Continuum of Human Sexuality nd: 2) DIFFERENCES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION AMONG MALES AND FEMALES Presently there are two theories that dominate understanding of the sexual orientation and how it comes to affect human individuals. The first theory is of social ecology of development, which states that the societal factors are very important in influencing the behaviors and thereby the sexual orientation of the people (Hammack 2005: 268; Diamond 2008: 19). The second is the principle of human agency, whereby each individual adapts and develops a personality based on the circumstances and events that were presented to him during his or her lifetime (Hammack 2005: 269; Diamond 2008: 19). Based on these theories is another group of theorists, who state the actual cause of sexual orientation. The essentialist theorists believe that sexual orientation is a feature that is inherent in nature and thereby, remains unaltered by the social contexts and situations one is presented with (Diamond 2008: 20). However, the social constructionists claim that sexual orientation is a presentation of the various social and cultural factors coming into play with the individual (Hammack 2005: 270). Both these concepts are described due to the important findings in sexual orientation among females and males based on these. Males are considered to develop sexual orientation on the basis of essentialism, where as the females are thought to develop sexual orientation under the influence of constructionism (Hammack 2005: 271; Ciani, Corna and Capiluppi 2004: 1). Males develop their sexual orientation as a direct result of influences from their own genetic, hormonal and neuroanatomical features and differences. This may explain that most men overall would show either one of the homosexual or heterosexual tendencies, but rarely both together (Hammack 2005: 271). Human females show very variable patterns due to a variety of social factors that seem to influence them more than males (Hammack 2005: 271). Females are more likely to have constructionist approach to sexual orientation, and may exhibit a range of expression within sexual orientation rather than just either one of the sexual tendency. Females show this variation due to their “erotic plasticity, sexual fluidity, and a more relational, sex-unspecific pattern of erotic preference (Hammack 2005: 271). Other researches are looking for more biological reasons for the development of sexual orientation among men and women. One series of survey researches have shown that men who developed homosexual or bisexual preferences are likely to be shorter and lighter than men who develop heterosexual tendencies (Bogaert 2010: 114). In the case of women, the lesbian and bisexual sexual orientation patterns are more likely seen in women who are taller and heavier than heterosexual women (Bogaert 2010: 114 and 115). EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE ON HUMAN SEXUALITY AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION The topic of sexual orientation and its evolution among humans is different and unique from other mammals and animals due to the many differences in the genetic makeup (Bolin and Whelehan 1999: 50). For humans, sexuality is perceived on many mental, physical, and emotional levels. The human brain is able to modify this sexual desire and orientation through various brain functions such as fantasizing or dreaming. Therefore, humans differ in their development of sexual orientation based on their mental approach towards it (Bolin and Whelehan 1999: 50). The biological functions add to this difference in human species. For example, human females demonstrate hidden ovulation patterns, with a shift of the genitals to the front of the body, along the bipedal posture already present in the human race (Bolin and Whelehan 1999: 63). Other biological evolutionary factors that have contributed to the development of sexual orientation in humans include the human hand’s capability to grasp things, stereotypic vision, and the ability to groom and adapt to the society’s norm respectively (Bolin and Whelehan 1999: 64; Roughgarden 2004: 147). Bipedalism, the ability to learn and process information in the highly developed human brain and its role in the different stages of sexual maturation are also very important contributors towards the development of human sexual orientation patterns (Bolin and Whelehan 1999: 64). SEXUAL ORIENTATION IN OTHER HIGHER PRIMATES AND ANIMALS Sexual orientation among humans can be better understood when compared to other higher primates in the animal kingdom and how they demonstrate their sexuality and sexual orientation (Roughgarden 2004: 143). When comparing the female species, higher primates show no physical restriction to sexual intercourse during the menstrual cycle (Roughgargen 2004: 144). Males however, can show the similar reactions comparable to higher primates when exposed to testosterone (2B Human Sexual Behavior Sexual Orientation nd: np). Research shows that males when exposed to GnRH antagonist are likely to show a decrease in the sexual activity, mainly due to lack of interest, sexual fantasy and intercourse in human males. Testosterone production is also likely to affect the sexual desire among human males, similar to higher primates (2B Human Sexual Behavior Sexual Orientation nd: np). SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE IN SEXUAL ORIENTATION Sexual orientation and its development in humans are far more complex when compared to other higher primates. This is because human brain has the ability to interpret sex in a variety of mental processes. Sex is therefore, a far more complex concept in a human’s mind, which accounts for the many theories put forward in order to explain it (Collaer and Hines 1995: 58). Like many other researches, scientists are also looking at the different possible factors that affect behavior during the prenatal and neonatal developmental phase. Hormone exposure is one of the primary areas of studies. Although there is still limited evidence, gonadal hormones during these phases may have an important impact on the human behavior and consequently, the sexual orientation (Collaer and Hines 1995: 62 and 98). Sex differences have always been an accepted and evident part of human sexuality. However, these differences extend to other activities of the human life too (Kimura 1996: 262). This influence can be easily seen in childhood play, which is strongly influenced by sexual orientation and tendencies towards aggression (Collaer and Hines 1995: 61 and 100). FACTORS CAUSING PERSISTANCE OF DIFFERENT SEXUAL ORIENTATIONS THROUGH OUT EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY It is as difficult to pinpoint exactly which factor are responsible for the persistence of sexual orientation among humans as it is in explaining why sexual orientation in humans is so different. There are however many factors that can be taken as contributors towards such persistence of sexual behavior. First and foremost are the genetic and the biological makeup, as is stated by the essentialist theorists (Greenberg, Bruess and Conklin 2010: 23). Supporters believe that sexual orientation is as determined at birth as is hand preference. The second most common contributing factor is hormones and their exposure during the various stages of pregnancy and life. Third, the orientation and structure of the brain influences the way a human perceives him or herself as a sexual being, which in turn influences the sexual orientation (Greenberg, Bruess and Conklin 2010: 54). These however, are only some of the factors being considered. As stated, human sexuality is a complex phenomenon, which has many areas of study. Therefore, there is need of strong evidences and further researches to achieve the ultimate understanding of these phenomena. CONCLUSION Human sexuality is a difficult concept to define mainly due to the immense influences and implications it has with it. From the true biological terms, it may seem to be only a need for sustaining a particular species on the planet. However, due to the higher brain functions and cognitive ability of man, human sexuality is now debate of almost every area of human knowledge. Human sexuality therefore, should be considered from a broad perspective and should be understood properly in order to gain insight about various sexual orientations and approaches in humans. BIBLIOGRAPHY 2B Human Sexual Behavior Sexual Orientation, nd, np. Site last accessed on December 1st, 2010 from http://behavioralphys.wikispaces.com/2B+Human+Sexual+Behavior+Sexual+Orientation Bancroft, John, 2009. Human Sexuality and Its Problems. Elsevier Health Sciences. Bogaert, A F, 2010. “Physical Development and Sexual Orientation in Men and Women: An Analysis of NATSAL-2000”, Arch Sex Behav 39(1): 110-6. Bolin Anne and Patricia Whelehan, 1999. Perspectives on Human Sexuality. SUNY Press, 1999. Byne William and Bruce Parsons, 1993. The Biological Theories Reappraised. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50(3): 228-239. Camperio-Ciani Andrea, Francesca Corna and Claudio Capiluppi, 2004. “Evidence for Maternally Inherited Factors Favouring Male Homosexuality and Promoting Female Fecundity” Proc. R. . Soc. Lond. B. Cheek, Pamela, 2003. Sexual Antipodes: Enlightenment, Globalization and the Placing of Sex. Stanford University Press, 2003. Collaer Marcia L and Hines Melissa, 1995. Human Behavioral Sex Differences: A Role for Gonadal Hormones During Early Development. Psychological Bulletin, Vol 118(1), Jul 1995, 55-107. Continuum of Human Sexuality, nd. Site last accessed on December 1st, 2010 from http://www.uis.edu/studentaffairs/safezone/resources/documents/sexuality%20continuum.pdf Diamond, Lisa Michelle, “Gender Differences in Same-Sex Sexuality” in Sexual Fluidity: Understanding Women’s Love and Desire, Harvard University Press, 2008. Frayser Susanne G and Thomas G Whitby, 1995. Studies in Human Sexuality: A Selected Guide. Libraries Unlimited, 1995. Greenberg Jerrold S, Clint E Bruess and Sarah C Conklin, 2010. “Exploring the Dimensions of Human Sexuality”. Johns and Bartlett Learning, 2010. Hammack Phillip L, 2005. “The Life Course Development of Human Sexual Orientation: An Integrative Paradigm”. Human Development 2005;48: 267-290 Issues in Human Sexuality. A Statement by the House of Bishops, 1991. Church House Publishing, 1991. Kimura Doreen, 1996. “Sex, Sexual Orientation and Sex Hormones Influence Human Cognitive Function”, Current Opinion in Neurobiology Vol 6, issue 2, pp 259-263 Merriam Webster Dictionary Online, Definition of Sex. Site last accessed on December 1st, 2010 from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ Meyer-Bahlburg, H.F.L. “Psychoendocrine research on sexual orientation. Current status and future options”, Progress in Brain Research 61: 375-398, 1984 Roughgarden, Joanne “Chapter 8 Same-Sex Sexuality” and “Chapter 14, Sexual Orientation”, in Evolution’s Rainbow: Diversity, Gender and Sexuality in Nature and People, University of California Press, 2004. Wolfe David, 2009. The Food and Medicine of the Future.North Atlantic Books, 2009. Read More